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A COMPLETE COURSE IN HISTORY. 



NEW Manual 

OF 

General History, 



WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO 



ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVILIZATION. 



WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS. 



FOR THE USE OF 

Colleges, High Schools, Academies, etc. 



/' "^ 



JOHN J. ANDBESON, Ph.D., 

Autnor of a "Grammar School History of the United States," a "Popular School 

History of the United States, " a "Junior Class History of the United 

States, " a "History of England, " a " History of France," etc. 



PART FIRST -ANCIENT HISTORY. 
PART SECOiND.-MEDLEVAL AM) MODERN HISTORY. 



NEW YORK: 

Clark & Maynard, Publishers, 
734 Broadway. 

1882. 






1^ 



Anderson's Historical ^Series. 



A Junior Class History of the United States. Illustrated with 
hundreds of portraits, views, maps, etc. 272 pages. i6mo. 

A Grammar School History of the United States. Annotated ; 
and illustrated with numerous portraits and views, and with more than forty- 
maps, many of which are colored. 340 pp. i6mo. 

A Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully illus- 
trated with maps, portraits, vignettes, etc. 420 pp. i2mo. 

A Popular School History of the United States, in which are in- 
serted as a part of the narrative selections from the writings of eminent 
American historians and other American writers of note. Fully illustrated 
with maps, colored and plain ; portraits, views, etc. 356 pp. i2mo. 

A Manual of General History. Illustrated with numerous en- 
gravings and with beautifully colored maps showing the changes in the 
political divisions of the world, and giving the location of important places. 
484 pp. i2mo. 

A New Manual of General History, with particular attention to 
Ancient and Modern Civilization. With numerous engravings and colored 
maps. 600 pp. i2mo. Also, in two parts. Parti. Ancient History: 
300 pp. Part II. Modern History : 300 pp. 

A School History of England. Illustrated with numerous engrav- 
ings and with colored maps showing the geographical changes in the coun- 
try at different periods. 332 pp. i2mo. 

A School History of France. Illustrated with numerous engravings, 
colored and uncolored maps. 373 pp. i2mo. 

A History of Rome, Amply illustrated with maps, plans, and engrav- 
ings. 543 pp. By R. F. Leighton, Ph. D. (Lips.). 

A School History of Greece. In preparation. 

Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History. Illustrated with engravings, 
colored maps, and a chart. 445 pp. i2nio. 

The Historical Reader, embracing selections in prose and verse, from 
standard writers of Ancient and Modern History ; with a Vocabulary of 
Difficult Words, and Biographical and Geographical Indexes. 544 pp. l2mo. 

The United States Reader, embracing selections from eminent Ameri- 
can historians, orators, statesmen, and poets, with explanatoiy observations, 
notes, etc. Arranged so as to form a Class-manual of United States His- 
tory. Illustrated with colored historical maps. 414 pp. i2mo. 

CLARK & MAYNARD, Publishers, 

734 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 

Copyright, 1882, by John J. Anderson, 



PREFACE. 



The prominent and characteristic features of the Author's 
series of school histories have won for these books a large 
share of public favor, and have secured their introduction 
into a great number of schools in every part of the country. 
Of these books the Manual of General History has been, per- 
haps, the most conspicuously successful, having been for many 
years used in a large number of colleges, preparatory schools, 
academies, and seminaries, and having been commended, after 
a mature practical test of its merits, by many intelligent and 
accomplished educators, as a work that contains not only a 
clear and brief statement of all the facts needed to afford a 
basis for a complete course of historical study, but also such 
aids to teacher and pupil as are requisite to facilitate the work 
both of instruction and of acquisition. 

It is not intended to supersede this work by the New Man- 
ual, here presented to the public, but to supply, by means of 
it, a somewhat more extended course of history, especially with 
regard to the progress of civilization among mankind, so as 
to show the distinguishing traits of each separate people in 
respect to religion, manners and customs, and advancement 
in literature and the arts. 

There has been, for some time, a growing tendency in the 
public mind to study rather those things that directly concern 
the life of the people, as such, than the facts of national or po- 
litical history. Certainly, this department of knowledge has a 
most fascinating interest;' but it must be borne in mind that 
the great movements of mankind are connected rather with 
their national than their social history; and, hence, it is a 
false system that makes the former subordinate to the latter, 



Preface, 



dwarfing it below its proper proportion, or keeping it out of 
Tiew altogether. The political history of nations must consti- 
tute the main groundwork of historical study; and, hence, it has 
seemed to the Author that a school manual on this subject, 
however charming in its sketches of popular traits, or grapliic 
in its painting of ideal scenes of every-day life, usually consid- 
ered to belong to the province of romance, cannot, and should 
not, take the place of that which every student imperatively 
needs to render his subsequent reading of history profitable 
and satisfactory. The "old masters" of education, though 
more severe than those of the present time, in their imposi- 
tion of tasks, and less anxious to consult the uncultured pal- 
ate of their pupils, probably, on that account, often imparted 
more solid and enduring accomplishments. 

The present work, while giving a brief sketch of the political 
history of every nation, ancient and modern, aims also to 
afford, in a pleasing and instructive style, all the information 
needed by the young student in regard to the social peculiar- 
ities of the people and their progress in each department of 
civilization; but care has been exercised to keep this branch 
of the subject within its just limits. 

As, in most programmes of study in this country, the his- 
tory of the United States precedes the study of general his- 
tory, and as, therefore, that subject is fully treated in more 
elementary books, it has been deemed unnecessary to include 
it in the present work. 

The geographical features of the work, including copious 
maps and map exercises, with constant references to the same 
in the text, accord with the plan uniformly pursued by the 
Author in his oth-er works, and strongly commended by the 
most successful teachers. Indeed, this plan has been followed 
in all the Author's historical text-hooks published since the 
date of his first work. 

The treatment by nationalities rather than by periods has 
been retained, as being the most suitable for beginners, 



Preface. 



inasmuch as it prevents the confusion that is necessarily 
caused in the minds of the pujDils by a constant interruption 
of the current of events in passing from nation to nation. 
Synchronistic exercises and reviews are, however, freely given, 
which will serve to bring into intimate relation, and give 
unity of aspect to, all the great contemporaneous events in 
the national life of each separate people. 

In the cuts inserted to illustrate the text, the object has 
been not merely embellishment, but, by addressing the eye, to 
afford information to the pupil in regard to matters a verbal 
account or description of which would necessarily be imper- 
fect or insufficient. 

It has been also the aim of the Author, himself a practical 
teacher, to render this work a valuable and effective instru- 
ment in imparting instruction. Hence, it has been provided 
with outline reviews, topical synopses, and chronological ta- 
bles, designed to facilitate the labors of both instructor and 
student. To this object the analytical table of contents and 
pronouncing index will be found to contribute. 

The latest and best authorities have been consulted in the 
compilation of this work; and every effort has been made to 
give it all the freshness of interest, and clearness of expression, 
possible in such a work. 

The Neio Ma7iual, it is confidently believed, will be found 
to contain all the requirements for a complete course of 
history for all institutions of every grade, above that of the 
grammar-school, that have not the time to devote to the study 
of the minute history of different nations in separate volumes. 
It consists of two parts, — the first devoted to ancient, and the 
second to mediaeval and modern history. These parts are 
issued together in a single book, as well as in two separate 
volumes, the first being confined to ancient history, the 
second comprehending both mediaeval and modern. 



Kew York, Feb. 1, 1882. 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

The Parthenon (Frontispiece). 
TheWorJd as known to the Ancients. 

—Map 1 24,25 

Map of the Ancient Monarchies 30* 

Warrior and Horses (Kliorsabad) 33 

A Babj'lonian Brick. 35 

From the Palace of Sennacherib 36 

Interior of an Assyrian Palace 37 

Ancient Warrior 42 

Ruins of an Egyptian Temple 46 

Map of Ancient Egypt 47 

Cartouche of a King 49 

Memnonian Statues 52 

Egj^ptian Mummies 55 

The Obelisk, New York 56 

Diagram of the Great Pyramid 58 

Map of Phoenicia and Palestine 62 

Phoenician Ship 63 

Head of Baal 64 

Antique Vessels 68 

Hebrew Costume 69 

The Persian Empire.— Map II 74 

Persian War-Chariot 78 

Greece.—Map III 85 

Map of Hellas and her Colonies 86 

Map of the Greek Colonies in Italy. . 87 

Menelaus 90 

Solon 97 

Ruins of Areopagus and the Acrop- 
olis 98 

Plan of the Battle of Marathon 100 

Miltiades 101 

Map of Salamis 102 

Aristides 104 

The Acropolis at Athens 105 

Socrates Ill 

Map of the Retreat of the Ten Thou- 
sand 113 

Xenophon 114 

Epaminondas 115 

Empire of Alexander the Great.— 

Map IV 117 

Map showing the Marches of Alex- 
ander 121 

Battering- Ram 122 

Plan of the Battle of Arbela 123 

Map of Asia Minor 125 

The East.— Map V 129 

Ruins of Baalbec 135 

Pharos 137 

Map of the Port of Alexandria 138 

Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 140 

A Grecian Temple 146 



PAGE 

Zeus, or Jupiter 147 

Colossus of Rhodes 148 

The Foot-Race 152 

Homer 155 

Demosthenes 160 

Writing Materials of the Greeks 162 

Tlie Three Orders of Greek Archi- 
tecture 163 

An Ionic Capital 164 

The Parthenon, Restored 165 

A Grecian Vase 166 

Athenian Female Costume 169 

Greek Jewelry 171 

Greek Instruments of Music 173 

Italy.— Map VI 181 

Map of the Vicinity of Rome 185 

Cloaca Maxima 186 

Celtic Arms 197 

Via Appia 203 

Map of the Coimtries subject to Car- 
thage 205 

War-Ship of Hiero 206 

Map of the Territory of Syracuse 211 

Map of Numidia and the Old Prov- 
ince of Africa 216 

The Siege of Nimiantia 218 

Temple of Concord 222 

Pompey the Great 235 

Julius Ceesar 236 

Mark Antony 240 

Cicero 241 

Roman Forum, Restored 248 

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 250 

Aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, at 

Nismes 251 

Racing Chariots 252 

The Colosseum 253 

Mausoleum of Augustus 254 

Temple of Vesta 256 

Horace 258 

Virgil 258 

The Pantheon 259 

Suovetaurilia 261 

Roman Implements of Writing 264 

Roman Toga : 265 

Empress Livia 266 

lioman Soldiers and Lictor 267 

Besieging Tower 268 

Roman Standard 269 

Triumph of Titus 270 

Roman Empire.— Map VII 271 

The Arch of Titus 273 

Alexander Severus ~76 



List of Maps and Illustrations. 



PAGE 

Arch of Constantine 281 

Europe in the Reign of Theodoric, 

A.D. 500.— Map VIII Facing 297 

Europe at the Death of Justinian, 

A.D. 565.— Map IX Facing 301 

Empire of Charlemagne.— Map X. 

Facing 315 
Map of France after the Treaty of 

Verdun 320 

Saxon England.— Map XI Facing 333 

Map of Great Britain and Ireland. . . 339 

A Feudal Castle 343 

A Norman Castle 344 

A Knight in Complete Armor 346 

A Knight in the Lists 348 

Map of the Dominions of the Ange- 

vins 350 

A Paragraph in Magna Charta 357 

Military Accouterments of the Black 

Prince 364 

Knight of the Garter, Gentleman, 

and Citizen 374 

Hats and Caps 374 

Ladies' Head-Dresses {Froissart) 375 

Chaucer 376 

Europe at the Death of Charle- 
magne.— Map XII Facing 379 

Map of France and the Neighbor- 
ing Countries 380 

A Crusading Knight 383 

Ramparts of a Town in the Middle 

Ages 389 

France under Hugh Capet, a.d. 987. 

—Map XIII Facing 393 

France at the Time of Valois, a.d. 

1328.— Map XIV Facing 392 

Cannon of the Fourteenth Century. 393 
Fortified Gate of a French Town in 

the Middle Ages 396 

Cathedral of Rheims 397 

Feudal Castle in France, Fifteenth 

Century 398 

Froissart 404 

Europe in the Time of the Crusades. 

—Map XV 406, 407 

Crusaders 407 

Peter the Hermit 408 

Knights Templars 409 

Knight Hospitaller 410 

Map of the Christian Kingdoms in 

Syria and Palestine 411 

War-Ships of the Thirteenth Century 414 
Map of Central Europe, about 1200. . 419 
A Summons to a Town to Surrender 421 

Gregory VII 423 

Albert Durer 435 

Map of the Spanish Kingdoms, 

about 1350 449 

Map of Southeastern Europe, about 

1200 453 

Map of Southeastern Europe and 

Asia Minor, 1354 454 

Map of the Ottoman Empire, 1460. . . 457 
Modern England.— Map XVI. Facing 461 
Ship in which Hemy VIII. em- 
barked for France, 1520 464 

Mary Stuart 472 



PAGE 

Raleigh 479 

Musketeer and Pikeman, Time of 

James 1 480 

Milton 490 

William of Orange, King of England 498 

Prince Eugene 500 

Cavalier and Puritan 503 

Ships of War, Time of Charles II. . .. 504 

Shakespeare 506 

Bacon 507 

Washington 513 

York Minster 518 

Map of the Crimea 520 

Victoria 521 

Gladstone 523 

Franklin 530 

Morse 531 

Goldsmith 532 

Burns 532 

Byron 532 

Wordsworth 533 

Scott 534 

Tennyson 534 

Macaulay 535 

George Eliot 535 

Dickens 536 

Thackeray 536 

Carlyle 537 

Modern France. — Map XVII 541 

Pope Juhus II 542 

Field of the Cloth of Gold 544 

Francis 1 545 

Richelieu 555 

Mary de' Medici 556 

Louis XIV 558 

Pavilion of Henry IV. at St. Germain 565 

Fountain Moliere, Paris 567 

Fenelon 568 

Voltaire 569 

Marie Antoinette 570 

The Bastile 572 

Lafayette 573 

Robespierre 575 

Madame Roland 576 

Napoleon 1 579 

Murat 581 

Victor Hugo 595 

Europe at the End of the Seven- 
teenth Century.- Map XVIII. 

Facing 598 

Members of Maximilian's Court 599 

Charles V 601 

Wallenstein 603 

Maria Theresa 605 

Bismarck 607 

Central and Southern Europe, Mod- 
ern.— Map XIX Facing 609 

Frederick the Great 610 

William of Orange 612 

Map of Spain and Portugal 617 

Peter the Great 628 

Catharine II 629 

Beethoven 640 

Copernicus 642 

Schiller 644 

Richter 645 

Goethe 646 



ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

History defined and classified 17 

Origin of Nations 17 

Aids to History 17 

Different Races 18 

Comparative Philology 19 

Classification of Languages 19 

Chronology 20 

Different Epochs 21 

Ancient Monuments 21 

Ancient Writings 22 

Divisions of History 23 

Philosophy of History 23 

Ethnological Synopsis 24 

CHAPTER I. 

Ancient Monarchies. 

I. Babylonians and Assyrians. 

Babylonia or Chaldea 25 

Chaldean and Babylonian Monar- 
chies 27 

The Chaldees 27 

Babylon 27 

Berosus 28 

Early Dynasties 29 

Later Babylonian Monarchy 29 

Assyrian Empire 31 

Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization. 35 

Review Outline 39 

II. Median Monarchy. 

Early History 40 

Cyrus the Great 40 

Median Civilization 41 

III. Kingdoms in Asia Mincyr. 

The Phrygians 41 

Cilicia 41 

The Lydian Monarchy 42 

Chronological Synopsis 44 



IV. Tlie Ancient Egyptians. 

Origin 45 

Sources of Egyptian History 45 

Dynasties 47 

Topography and Civilization 51 

The Ethiopians 61 

V. The Phoenicians. 

Sidon and Tyre 61 

Navigation and Commerce 63 

Literatm-e and Religion 64 

Syria 65 

VI. The Hebrews. 

Situation of Palestine 66 

Tribes of Israel 66 

Earlj- Kingdom of Israel 66 

Later Kingdom of Israel 67 

Kingdom of Judah 68 

Later Jewish History 69 

VII. The Hindoos. 

Invasion of the Aryans 70 

Religion 70 

Wealth and Trade 71 

VIII. The Chinese. 

Origin and History 72 

Chinese Civilization 73 

IX. The Persians. 

Origin 74 

Conquests of Cyrus 75 

Cambyses 76 

Darius 77 

Other Kings 78 

Civilization 78 

Review Outline 81 

Kings of Israel and Judah 83 

The Persian Monarchs 84 



10 



Contents. 



CHAPTER n. 

Greece and Macedonia. 

I. Geographical Sketch. 

Divisions 85 

States and Islands 85 

Colonies 86 

Physical Features 87 

II. First Period— to 776 B.C. 

Legendary or Traditional History. . . 88 

The Pelasgi 88 

Hellenes 89 

Heroic Age 89 

Trojan War 90 

State of Society 91 

Amphictyonic Council 91 

Migrations 92 

Colonies 92 

.ni. Second Period— 776-500 B.C. 

Dawn of Authentic History 93 

Olympiads 93 

Laws of Lycurgus 93 

Messenian Wars 95 

Attica 96 

Draco 96 

Solon 97 

Pisistratus 97 

Clisthenes 98 

Ostracism 98 

IV. Third Per/od-500-449 B.C. 

The Persian War 99 

Revolt of the Colonies 99 

First Persian Expedition 100 

Second Expedition 100 

Battle of Marathon 101 

Expedition of Xerxes 101 

Battle of Thermopylae 102 

Battle of Salamis . . 102 

Burning of Athens 103 

Battle of Platasa 103 

Treason of Pausanias 103 

Confederacy of Delos 104 

Themistocles 104 

Cimon 106 

Pericles 106 



V. Fourth Period— 449-358 b.c. 

page: 

Interstate Dissensions 107 

Height of Athenian Glory 107 

Peloponnesian War 108 

Thirty Tyrants Ill 

Condemnation and Death of Socrates 112 

Expedition of Cyrus *. . 113 

Theban War 115 

VI. Fifth Period— 358-301 B.C. 

Macedonian Supremacy 117 

Philip 117 

Condition of the Grecian States. . . 117 

Social War 117 

Sacred War 118 

Subjugation of Greece 119 

Destruction of Thebes 119 

Conquests of Alexander the Great. . . 120 

Lamian War 125 

Alexander's Successors 126 

Disposition of the Empire 126 

Death of Perdiccas 126 

Battle of Ipsus 127 

Partition of the Empire 128 

VII. Sixth Period— 301-146 b.l 

Macedon and Greece 129 

Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidce. . . 133 

Egyptian Kingdom of the Ptolemies. 136 

The Minor Kingdoms 141 

Pergamus 141 

Bithynia 142 

Paphlagonia 142 

Pontus 142 

Cappadocia 142 

Armenia 142 

Bactria 143 

Parthia 143 

VIII. Grecian Civilization. 

Early Customs and Institutions 143 

Religion of the Greeks 145 

Greek Literature 154 

First or Early Period 154 

Second or Middle Period 156 

Third or Later Period 160 

Greek Art 162 

Social Life and Manners 167 



Contents. 



11 



PAGE 

Review Outline 175 

Topical Review 179 

CHAPTER III. 
Roman H istor y. 

I. Early History of Italy. 

Early Races 181 

lapygians, Italians 181 

Latins, Etruscans, Romans 182 

Synopsis of the Races of Italy 183 

II. The Roman Kingdom. 

Foundation of Rome 184 

Government 184 

Patricians and Plebeians 185 

Kings 185 

Traditional Chronology of the Kings. 187 

III. The Roman Republic. 

Period of Internal Struggles 187 

Legends of the Period of the Tar- 
quins 189 

Agrarian Laws 193 

Decemvirs 195 

Military Tribunes 197 

Invasion by the Gauls -. . 197 

Licinian Laws 199 

Triiunph of the Plebeians 200 

Period of Italian Conquests 200 

Conquest of Italy 200 

Samnite Wars 201 

War with the Gauls 201 

War with Pyrrhus 201 

Military Roads. 203 

Aqueducts 203 

Period of Foreign Conquests 203 

History of Syi-acuse 204 

First Punic War 206 

Second Punic War. .' 209 

Conquest of Macedon and Greece.. 214 

Third Punic War 215 



PAGE 

War in Spain 217 

Review of the Period 219 

Effects of the Conquests 220 

Period of Internal Dissensions and 

Civil War 221 

The Gracchi ;i21 

Jugurthine War 223 

Invasion of the Cimbrians and 

Teutons 224 

Mithridatic War 225 

First Civil War 227 

Servile War 229 

Conspiracy of Catiline 231 

First Triumvirate 233 

' The Great Civil War 234 

Second Triumvirate 241 

Octavius Master of the Empire 243 

Review Outline 244 

Table of Contemporaneous Events. . 247 

IV. Roman Civilization. 

Change in Roman Manners 249 

Description of Rome 249 

Roman Art 255 

Roman Literature 257 

Roman Rehgion 258 

Manners and Customs 262 

Military System 266 

V. The Roman Empire. 

Reign of Augustus 271 

Birth of Christ 272 

The Twelve Caesars 272 

Prgetorian Guards 274 

Rise and Progress of Christianity . . . 279 

The Irruptions of the Barbarians 283 

List of the Roman Emperors 288 

Topical Review . . 289 

Topical Review of the Roman Em- 
pire 290 

General Chronological Review 291 

Synoptical View of the Rise and Fall 
of Nations 296 



12 



Contents. 



PART II. 



I. Medi-eval History. 

CHAPTER I. 

General View of Europe. 

PAGE 

Conquering Races 297 

Burgundians 297 

Ostrogoths and Visigoths 298 

Sueves, Alans, and Vandals 298 

Saxons, Gepidee, and Lombards 299 

Arj^ans, Basques, etc 299 

Ethnological Synopsis 300 



CHAPTER II. 
The Eastern Empire. 

Foundation 301 

Reign of Justinian 302 

Bulgarians and Slavonians 303 

Conquest of Italy by Narses 303 

Avars, Lombards, and Gepidae 301 

Conquest of Italy by the T^ombards. 304 

Persia 305 

Saracen Conquests 305 

Kingdom of Bulgaria 306 

Russians and Turks 307 

Latin Emperors 308 

Mongols and Ottomans 309 

Byzantine Civilization 310 

Principal Greek Emperors 314 

Summary of Events and Dates 314 



CHAPTER III. 

The Conquering Races. 

I. The Franks and ihe Normans, 

Dark Ages 315 

The Franks 315 

Clovis 316 

Frankish Monarchy 317 

Descendants of Clovis 317 

Charlemagne 318 

Louis le Debonnaire 319 

The Normans 320 



II. The Saxons. page 

Incursions 322 

Conquest of Britain 323 

Heptarchy 324 

England 324 

III. The Saracens. 

Mohammed 324 

Conquests of the Caliphs 326 

Ommiyades 327 

Conquest of Africa and Spain 328 

Caliphate of Cordova 329 

Haroun al Raschid 329 

End of the Caliphate 330 

IV. Saracenic Civilization. 

Commercial Activity 330 

Manufactures and Mines 331 

Learning and Science 331 

Chronological Synopsis 332 

CHAPTER IV. 

England in the Middle Ages. 

I. Saxon Period. 

Danes 333 

Alfred the Great 334 

Norman Conquest 335 

Anglo-Saxon Civilization 336 

II. Norman Period. 

William 1 338 

William II 340 

Henry L, Stephen 341 

Norman Civilization 342 

Feudal System 342 

Chivalry or Knighthood 345 

HI. T7ie Plantagenets. 

Henry II 350 

Conquest of Ireland 353 

Richard 1 354 

John 355 

Henry III 358 

Edward 1 359 

Edward II 361 



Contents. 



13 



PAGE 

Edward in 362 

Richard U 365 

Heniy IV., Henry V 367 

Henry VI 368 

Edward IV 370 

Edward V 371 

Richard III 372 

State of Society in England 373 

Kings of England 377 

Summary of Events and Dates 377 

Topical Review 378 

CHAPTER V. 

France in the Middle Ages. 

I. Tlie Capetian Dynasty. 

Hugh Capet 379 

Robert, Henry 1 381 

Philip I. and Louis VI 382 

Louis VII., PhUip II . 382 

Louis VIIL, Louis IX 384 

Philip III 385 

Philip IV 386 

Louis X 387 

Philip v., Charles IV 388 

State of Society 388 

II. Branch of Valois. 

Philip VI 392 

John 393 

Charles V., Charles VI 395 

Charles VII 396 

Louis XI 398 

Charles VIII 400 

State of Society 400 

Kings of France 405 

Summary of Events and Dates 405 

Topical Review 406 

CHAPTER VI, 

The Crusades. 

Cause 407 

First Crusade 408 

Second Crusade 411 

Third Crusade 412 

Fourth Crusade 413 

Subsequent Crusades 415 

Influence of the Crusades 416 

Summary of Events and Dates 417 



CHAPTER Vn. 

Central and Southern Europe. 
I. Gei-many. 

PAGE 

Otto and Conrad 418 

Henry 1 419 

Otto I., Otto II 420 

OttoIIL, Henry II 421 

Conrad II., Henry lU 422 

Henry IV 423 

Henry V., Lothaire 424 

Conrad III 424 

Frederick I 425 

Frederick II 425 

Rudolf I., Albert 1 427 

Henry VII., Charles IV 428 

Wenceslas 429 

Albert II., Frederick III 430 

State of Society in Germany 431 

Emperors of Germany 436 

Summary of Events and Dates 436 

II. Switzerland. 

Barbaric Invasions 437 

Cantons 437 

lU. Italy. 

Northern Italy 439 

Republic of Venice 440 

Southern Italy 442 

Rome, or Papal Italy 444 

State of Society in Italy 445 

IV. Spain and Portugal. 

Christian Kingdoms 448 

Castile and Aragon 448 

Spain 449 

Portugal 450 

Civilization in Spain and Portugal. . . 451 

CHAPTER VIIL 
Southeastern Europe. 

Races and States 452 

Bulgaria 452 

Servia 454 

Hungary 455 

Bosnia 456 

Ottoman or Turkish Empire 457 

Table of Contemporaneous Events. . 459 

Topical Review 460 



14 



Contents. 



II. Modern History. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Engiand. 

I. The Tudor Line. 

PAGE 

Henry VH 461 

Henry VIII 463 

Edward VI., Mary 468 

Elizabeth 469 

State of Society in England 474 

II. The Stuart Family. 

James 1 478 

Charles 1 481 

The Commonwealth 488 

Charles II 492 

James II 496 

William and Mary 498 

William III 499 

Anne 500 

State of Society in England 502 

III. The House of Brunsioick. 

George 1 508 

George II 508 

George III 512 

George IV 516 

William IV 517 

Victoria 518 

State of Society in England 524 

Sovereigns of England 538 

Summary of Events and Dates 538 

Topical Review 539 

CHAPTER X. 

France. 

I. The Valois-Orleans Branch, 

Louis XII 541 

Francis I 543 

Henry II ,546 

Francis II 547 

Charles IX 548 

Henry III 549 

State of Society in France 550 

II. The House of Bourbon. 

Henry IV 553 

Louis XIII 555 



PAGE 

Louis XIV 556 

Louis XV 561 

State of Society in France 563 

HI. Revolutionary France. 

Louis XVI 570 

The National Convention 574 

The Directory 577 

The Consulate and Empii-e 578 

Restoration of the Bourbons 585 

Louis XVIII 586 

Charles X 587 

Louis Philippe 587 

The Second Republic 588 

The Second Empire 589 

The Third Republic 591 

State of Society in France 592 

Rulers of France 596 

Summary of Events and Dates 596 

Topical Review 597 

CHAPTER XL 

States of Modern Europe. 

I. Germany and Austria. 

Maximilian 1 598 

Charles V 598 

Thirty Years' War .* 602 

Leopold 1 604 

Charles VI 604 

Francis I., Francis II 605 

William 1 606 

Austria 608 

II Prussia 

Early History 609 

Frederick the Great Elector 609 

Frederick III 610 

Frederick the Great 610 

Frederick William III 611 

Later Events 611 

III. Holland and Belgium. 

Early History 612 

Rise of the Republic 612 

Later Changes 613 

IV. Switzerland. 

Religious Wars 614 

Later History 614 



Contents. 



15 



V. Italy. p^QE 

Savoy, Sardinia 615 

Kingdom of Italy 616 

VI. Spain. 

Charles V 616 

Philip II 617 

Later Events 618 

Isabella II., Alfonso 619 

VII. Portugal. 

Maritime Enterprises 619 

Later History 620 

Vni. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 

Early History 622 

Sweden 622 

Norway 624 

IX. Poland. 

Early History 625 

Later History , . 626 

X. Russia. 

Early History 627 

Peter the Great 628 

Later History 629 

XI. Turkey. 

Conquests 631 

Solyman the Magnificent 632 

Selimll 632 

Subsequent Reigns. 632 

Wars with Russia 633 

The Eastern War of 1877-8 634 



xn. Greece. p^^j. 

Turkish Rule 635 

War for Independence 635 

Kingdom of Greece 635 

XIII. Progress of Civilization in 
Modern Europe. 

Modern Epoch 636 

Maritime Enterprises 637 

Industrial Arts 638 

Fine Arts 639 

Science 641 

Literature 643 

Review Outline 647 

Contemporaneous Events 650 

Emperors of Germany. 651 

Topical Review 651 

CHAPTER XII. 
Supplementary. 

I. Asiatic States. 

China 652 

Japan 652 

India 653 

Persia 654 

Turkistan 655 

II. American States. 

Mexico and Central America 656 

Brazil 656 

Peru 656 

Chili, Venezuela, etc 657 

Independent States 657 



A LIST OF WORKS FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE. 



The following works are recommended to the student who desires to acquire a 
complete knowledge of ancient history, or who wishes to make a special study of 
any single department of the subject, or to obtain a full account of any particular 
nation It need scarcely be said that this list is by no means exhaustive; though it 
embraces all that is needed for a full course of reading, or that would be required 
for the ordinary purposes of consultation. Most of the standard authorities upon 
each nation are given, as well as those that are especially useful and interesting 
for the light they throw upon the condition and progress of the most ancient 
peoples, such as the Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, and early Greeks, or Hel- 
lenes. It is in this field of archaeological and historical research that the explorers 
and writers of the last quarter of a century have won their chief distinction. This 
list is divided into three parts: (I.) works pertaining to the earUest times; 
(U.) those relating to Greece; and (III.) those relating to Rome. 

I. Bunsen's Egypt's Place in Universal History (translated from the French, by 

Cottrell and Birch). 2 vols. 
Brugsch, Histoire de VEgypte des les premiers temps de son existence. 
Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 
Smith, W., Dictionary of the Bible, articles Egypt, Phoenicia, Tyre, etc. 
Rawlinson, Sir Henry C, Outline of the History of Assyria. 
Rawlinsou, George, Translation of Herodotus 4 vols. 

Manual of Ancient History. ^ , , 

" " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. 

3 vols. 

" " The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. 

" " Origin of Nations. 

Kenrick, J., Phcenicia. 

Smitli, R. P., Carthage and the Carthaginians. 
Milniau, H. H., History of the Jews. 
Layard, Nineveh and its Remains. , „ ^ , 

Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. 
Grant, History of India. 
Schliemann, Ancient Mycenae. 

" Troy and its Remains. 

Davis, Dr. N., Carthage and her Remains^ 
Yeats, The Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, from B.C. 1500 to a.d. 1789. 

II. Niebuhr, Lectures on the Ethnography and Geography of Ancient Greece. 
Grote, History of Greece. 12 vols. 

Curtius, History of Greece. 5 vols. 
Smith, W., History of Greece. 
Ciirteis, A. M., Rise of the Macedonian Empire. 
Mahatty, Social Life in Greece. 

Gladstone, W. E., Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age. 3 vols. 
Juventus Mundi; the Gods and Men of the Homeric Age. 
III. Mommsen, The History of Rome. 4 vols. 
Merivale, History of the Romans. 7 vols. 
Niebuhr, History of Rome. 3 vols. 
Arnold, History of Rome. 4 vols. 
Forsyth, Life of Cicero. 2 vols. 
Froude, Caesar : a Sketch. 
Trollope, Life of Cicero. 2 vols. 
Liddell, History of Rome. 
Leighton, History of Rome. 

Smith, W., Dictionary of Grecian and Roman Antiquities. 
Becker, Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus. 
De Coulanges, The Ancient City: a Study on the Religion, Laws, and Institu- 
tions of Greece and Rome. 
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 4 vols. 
Long, Decline of the Roman Republic. 5 vols. 



mTEODUOTIOS' 



1. History is a narration of the events which have hap- 
pened among mankind. It includes an account 
of the rise and fall of nations, their dealings one 



History defined. 



with another, their government and institutions, and the 
causes of their growth and decline. This is sometimes called 
political history. History is also a record of the 
progress of mankind in civilization, giving an 



Political history. 



account of the manners, customs, and social life of different 
peoples, and their advancement in science, art, literature, and 
religion. This has been termed civil history. 
History treats particularly of those nations which 



Civil history. 



have occupied a prominent place among mankind by reason of 
their energy, enterprise, intelligence, and culture. 

2. The origin of nations is shrouded in obscurity ; but 

modern scholars by patient study and research v~ — 

have, to some extent, shown the relationship of ^nifionf 
different portions of mankind, by a comparison I 



Aids to history. 



of their physical peculiarities, their languages, and the remains 
of their literature, science, and art. Thus history is indebted 
for its progress to three branches of study and investiga- ' 
tion: 1. Ethnology, or a knowledge of the races 
of mankmd ; 2. Comparative philology, or the 
study of the affinities of languages; and 3. Archwology, or 
the study of the remains of ancient art, science, and litera- 
ture, such as inscriptions, monuments, architectural remains, 
pottery, medals, coins, etc. 



18 Ancient History. 



3. There are three great races of which history especially 
treats, — the Ar'yans,* the Sem'ites or SJiem'ites, 
and the Ham'ites. f The Aryans are often called 



Races 



the Lido- Europeans, because the primitive race appears to 
have separated into two branches, one passing to the west 
into Europe, and the other to the south-east into 
India. The place where this separation took place 



Aryans. 



seems to have been in the region situated to the south-east of 
the Cas23ian Sea, sometimes called the plateau of Iran. Thence 
they entered the Indian peninsula, and laid the foundation 
of the peculiar civilization, language, and literature of the 
Hindoos. The ancient Persians, as Avell as that kindred 
people, the Medes, were also descendants of this ancient race. 
In their great migrations to the west they occupied Greece, 
Italy, and other j^arts of Europe, thus laying the foundations 
not only of the Graeco-Roman nations, but of the Thracians, 
Celts, Slavs, Germans, etc. Relics of the peoples displaced by 
this powerful wave of migration still exist in Europe. Such are 
the Basques, a small tribe living on both sides of the Pyrenees, 
and the Finns and Laps.]; To the Semites proper belonged 
the Canaanites, Hebrews, Syrians, Chaldeans {kal- 
de'ans), Samaritans, and Arabians; to the Ham- 



Semi-tes. 



ites, often included among the Semitic nations, the Assyrians, 

Babylonians, ancient Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Ethiopians. 

4. It is by the study of the languages of different nations 

* Arya, in the later Sanslirit, signifies excellent. In the Vedns, the most ancient 
Sanskrit writings, the Hindoos style themselves Aryans; and the name Airya was 
applied to a pai't of southern and western Asia (India and Iran) to distinguish it 
from the countries of less civiUzed nations. 

t The terms Semites and Semitic (more properlj^ Sheniites and Shemitic) have 
been applied to the supposed descendants of Shem; as Hamites and Hamitic 
denote the races who are supposed to have descended from Ham. 

t "The results of Germanic antiquarian research lead to the conclusion that ia 
England, France, the north of Germany, and Scandinavia, before the settlement 
of the Indo-Europeans in those lands, there must have dwelt, or rather roamed, 
a people, perhaps of Mongolian race, gaining their subsistence by hunting and 
fishing, making their implements of stone, clay, or bones, adorning themselves 
with the teeth of animals and with amber, but unacquainted with agriculture and 
the use of the metals,"— Ifowmsen's History of Rome. 



Introduction. 19 



that their affinities have been traced. Thus, in regard to 
the Aryan or Indo-European race, it is found tliat 
the names of many common objects are the same 
in all the languages and dialects spoken by these 



Comparative 
philology. 



people; and it could not reasonably be supposed that two na- 
tions widely separated would have independently selected the 
same name for the same object. For example, the 
word for house in Greek is domos, in Latin dotnus, 



Aryan languages. 



in Sanskrit dama, in Zend (Persian) demana; and from the 
same root comes our word domestic. The words, also, for 
13loughing, grinding corn, building, etc., are found to be nearly 
identical. This serves to show, first, that these nations must 
have had a common origin, and, secondly, that they practiced 
farming, made bread, and built houses. By observing in this 
way the similitudes of words having the same meaning, com- 
parative philology has been the means of throwing much light 
on the affinities of different peoples. 

5. Different languages present three varieties of structure, 
or stages of development, which have been designated the 
monosyUalic, the agglutinative, and the inflected. 
The monosyllabic languages consist only of simple 
words expressing the ideas without regard to their 



Kinds of 
languages. 



relation to other words. Of these the Chinese is an example. 
The monosyllabic seems to be the simplest and earliest form of 
language. The agglutinative are those in which two roots are 
joined together to form words, one of them losing its inde- 
pendent meaning and becoming subsidiary to the other. The 
languages which have been called Turanian^ 
comprise all those spoken in Europe and Asia, ex- 



Turanian. 



cept the Aryan and Semitic. The latter are inflected languages; 
that is, those In which the roots coalesce, neither retaining its 
independent meaning. Though the Semitic languages were 

* The term Turanian is derived from Turan, a name applied by the Persians, 
from the earUest times, to the region lying to the north of Iran. " Tura,'' says 
Max Muller, "imphes the swiftness of the horseman." Hence, nomadic races 
were called Turanian. 



20 Ancient History. 



5poken by the nations who dwelt in the valley of the Tigris 
and Euphrates, and in Syria and Arabia, they 
were not restricted to those countries, but were 



spoken by a large j^art of the Hamitic nations. 

6. As far as we know, the nations that have performed the 
grandest achievements, made the most progress in civilization, 
and hence occupied the most conspicuous place in history, are 
the descendants of the primitive Aryans.* The Semitic and 
Hamitic nations seem to have more rapidly reached their ma- 
turity; but their civilization was of a peculiar character, 
having but little in common with that of the Aryan race, as 
developed in the growth of the greatest of modern nations, 
both of Europe and America. In art, science, and literature, 
this peculiarity is very marked, but is more especially so in 
religion. Some of the Semitic nations, as the Hebrews, had 
early reached a sublime height in their religious beliefs and 
institutions; while others, though they seem to have had pure 
and just views at the commencement of their national existence, 
soon fell into corrupt and superstitious notions and observances. 

7. Chronology is a department of history which treats of 
the exact time, or date, of each event with refer- 
ence to some fixed point of time, called an era or 



Chronology. 



epoch. The epoch employed in our times by Christian nations 



* " The words which have nearly as possible the same form and meaning in all 
the languages must have existed before the people, who afterwards formed the 
prominent nationalities of the Aryan family, separated; and, if carefully inter- 
preted, they, too, will serve as evidence as to the state of civilization attained by 
the Aryans before they left their common home. It can be proved, by the evidence 
of language, that before their separation the Aryans led the life of agricultural 
nomads— a life such as Tacitus describes that of the ancient Germans. They knew 
the arts of ploughing, of making roads, of building ship . of weaving and sewing, 
of erecting houses; they had counted at least as far as one hundred. They had 
domesticated the most important animals— the cow. the horse, the sheep, the dog; 
they were acquainted with the most useful metals, and armed with iron hatchets, 
whether for peaceful or warlike purposes. They had recognized the bonds of blood 
and the bonds of marriage; they followed their leaders and kings, and the distinc- 
tion between right and wrong was fixed by laws and customs. They were impressed 
with the idea of a Divine Being, and they mvoked it by various names. All this 
can be proved by the evidence of language."— Maa; Muller's Science of Language. 



Introduction. 21 



IS the Birth of Christ, called the Christian era. All dates 
preceding this are marked B.C. — that is, Before Clirist (or, in 
Latin, Ante Christum); and all subsequent to it are marked 
A.D. — that is, Anno Domifii, which means Li the year of Our 
Lord; that is, after the birth of Christ. Previous to the fifth 
century B.C., there are but few dates that can be fixed with 
any degree of certainty; that is to say, no uninterrupted series 
of dates can be accurately and positively assigned to events 
which are known to have occurred. In the earliest ages all 
dates are uncertain, from the absence of reliable information 
in regard to those remote periods.* 

8. Still, certain fixed points of time have been assumed 
by different nations of a very great antiquity. Thus, the 
Babylonians used the era of Naho7iassar, 747 b. c. 
— the earliest instance of a national epoch; the 
Eomans, the era of the Foundation of Rome, 753 



Different 
epochs. 



B. c. (or, according to some authorities, 752 B.C.); the Greeks, 
the era of the Olympiads, 776 B.C.; and the Mohammedans, in 
latter times, the Hegira, or Flight of Mohammed, 622 a.d. 

9. In establishing the date of ancient events, much aid 
has been afforded by the discovery of monuments of great 
antiquity bearing chronological inscriptions. Of these, one 
of the most noted is the Parian Marble, brought 
to England from Smyrna by the Earl of Arundel. 



Monuments. 



It contains a chronological arrangement of important events 
in Greek history, from the earliest times to 355 B.C. The 
Assyrian Canon, discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson, consists 
of a number of clay tablets, constructed in the reign of 
Sardanapa'lus, and containing a complete scheme of Assyrian 



* VSThen Christianity became predominant in the civilized world, writers began to 
date events from various epochs in the history of Christ, the most general being that 
of his death. About the middle of the sixth century, Dionysius Exiquus, a Roman 
abbot of Scythian birth, introduced the method of dating from the birth of Christ; 
but it is generally conceded that his computation placed the event about four 
years too late. This is, however, of little importance in chronology, as it merely 
involves the necessity of placing the date of the birth in the year 4 B.C. 



2^ Ancient History. 



chronology, verified by the record of a solar eclipse, which 
must have occurred June 15, B.C. 763. One of the most 
interesting remains of this kind is that of the 
Fasti Capitolini, discovered at Rome, partly in 



Fasti Capitolini. 



1547, and partly in 1817 and 1818. These records are in frag- 
ments, but they contain a list of the Roman magistrates and 
triumphs, from the commencement of the RepuWic to the 
end of the reign of Augustus. To these might be added 
many others of great interest, particularly the famous Rosetta 
Stone, the inscription on which in the Egyptian and Greek 
languages was fortunately deciphered, thus leading to the dis- 
covery of a key to the meaning of the hieroglyphic writings 
on the monuments.* [See Egypt.'] 

10. Besides these monumental inscriptions, the books of 
ancient writers, which have come down to us from antiquity, 
form a copious source of ancient history. Such are the frag- 
ments of San-cho-ni-a'thon and Be-ro'sus in regard 
to Phoenician and Assyrian history; the lists of 
Egyptian kings supplied by Man'e-tho; and the 



Ancient 
writings. 



writings of Herodotus, called the "Father of History," which 
have survived the wrecks and mutations of more than twenty- 
three centuries, giving us a graphic picture of ancient nations 
— their history, manners, and customs, as well as a geographi- 
cal description of the countries which they occupied. 

* The nations of antiquity made use to a very large extent of this mode of com- 
memorating events. In Egypt, in Assyria, in Babylonia, in Armenia, in Persia, in 
Phoenicia, in Lycia, in Greece, in Italy, historical events of importance were from 
time to time recorded in this way— sometimes on the natural rock, which was 
commonly smoothed for the purpose; sometimes on obelisks or pillars; frequently 
upon the walls of temples, palaces, and tombs ; occasionally upon metal plates, or 
upon tablets and cylinders of fine clay— hard and durable materials, all of them 
capable of lasting hundreds or even thousands of years, and in many cases con- 
tinuing to the present day. . . . The histories of Egypt and Assyria have been 
in a great measure reconstructed from the inscriptions of the two countries. The 
great inscription of Behistun has thrown much light upon the early history of 
Persia. That on the Delphic tripod has illustrated the most glorious period of 
Greece. It is now generally felt that inscriptions are among the most important 
of ancient records, and that their intrinsic value makes up to a great extent for 
their comparative scantiness."— iJawZmson. 



Introduction. 23 



11. History is most conveniently divided into Ancient j 
MedicBval, and Modern History. Ancient history may properly 
be considered to end 476 a.d., the date of the 
destruction of the western division of the Roman 
Empire. Mediaeval history, or the History of 



Divisions of 
history. 



the Middle Ages, extends from 476 a.d. to about the time 
of the fall of the eastern division of the Roman Empire, 
in 1453, or nearly to the end of the fifteenth century, at the 
time of the discovery of America by Columbus, 1492. All 
subsequent history belongs to the third division. This mode 
of dividing the subject is, however, entirely arbitrary. His- 
tory is also divided into Sacred and Profane History, the 
former being that which is contained in the Old and New 
Testaments, and the latter that recorded in other books. 
Ecclesiastical History is the history of the Church. The 
history of civilization, to which considerable prominence is 
given in this work, gives an account of the progress of nations 
in the arts, sciences, literature, and social culture. 

12. The Philosophy of History is a most important de- 
partment of the subject. It considers not simply the events 
which have occurred in the past, but traces their 
causes, and deduces from them certain principles, 
to serve as a guide to statesmen in conducting 



Philosophy 
of history. 



the affairs of a nation, or to illustrate the general characteris- 
tics of human nature. Viewed in this light, history has been 
styled ''philosophy teaching by example;" and it has been 
remarked by a distinguished writer that ''social advancement 
is as completely under the control of natural law as is bodily 
growth. The life of an individual is a miniature of the life 
of a nation." 



Ethnological Synopsis. 



I. ARYANS or INDO-EUROPEANS. 
I. Aryans proper: 

1. Iranians; 

2. Indians. 

II. GrR^co-RoMAN Races: 

1. Greeks, Thracians, and Albanians; 

3. Italo-Celtic races. 

a. Latins and Romans; 
6. Gauls, British, Gael. 
III. Slavo- German Races: 

1. Slavs. 

a. Russians; 

6. Poles, Czechs, Serbs; 

2. Baltics; 

3. Germans, Goths, Scandinavians. 
II. SEMITES. 

I. Canaanites: 

1. Phoenicians; 

2. Hebrews. 
II. Arameans: 

1. Syrians; 

2. Chaldeans; 

3. Samaritans. 
III. Arabs: 

1. Abyssinians, Amharras; 

2. Moors or Koranites. 
III. HAMITES. 

I. Mesopotamians: 

1. Assyrians; 

2. Babylonians; 

3. Ancient Phoenicians. 
II. Ancient Egyptians: 

1. Copts or Modern Ei^yptians; 

2. Ethiopians; 

3. Libyans. 



. i, 




PAET I. 

Ancient History. 



CHAPTEE I. 
The Ancient Monaechies. 



SECTION I. 

The Babylonians and Assyeians. 

1. Babylonia or Chaldea. The region watered by the 
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in very early times attracted to 
it a large pojuilation. Its fertility was extra- 
ordinary. It produced in great abundance every- 
thing requisite for the support of man. The 



Region of the 
Tigris and 
Euphrates. 



cereal grams, wheat, barley, and millet, flourished luxuri- 
antly.* An abundance of clay afforded material for the 
manufacture of bricks for building, and the wells of bitumen 
yielded an excellent cement. These supplied the place of 
wood, stone, and mortar, f It is not surprising, therefore, 

* " Of all the countries that we know of, there is none so fruitful in grain. It 
makes no pretension indeed of growing the fig, the olive, the vine, or any other 
tree of the kind ; but in grain it is so fruitful as to yield two hundred-fold. The 
blade of the wheat plant and barley plant is often three or four fingers in breadth. 
As for the millet and the sesame, I shall not say to what height they grow, though 
within my own knowledge; for I am not ignorant that what I have already written 
concerning the fruitfulness of Babylonia must seem incredible to those who have 
never visited the country.''''— Herodotus. 

t " Stone and marble were even more rare in this country than wood, but the 
clay was well adapted for the manufacture of bricks. These, whether dried in the 
sun or burnt in kilns, became so hard and durable that now, after the lapse of so 
many centuries, the remains of ancient walls preserve the bricks uninjured by 



26 



Ancient ttistory. 



that this region was, at a very early period, crowded with in- 
habitants, and soon became the seat of populous cities and 
powerful empires. 




QEOGRAPHIOAI, STITDT. 



Find the situation of : Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Persia, 
Media, Phknicia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Lydia, Phrygia, Cilicia, Colchis, 
Egypt, Babylon, Nineveh, Ur, Susa, Ecbatana, Jerusalem, Memphis, Sidon, Tyre, 
Thebes, Damascus, Pelusium, Tadmor, Tarsus. 



their long exposure to the atmosphere, and retaining the impression of the 
inscriptions as perfectly as if they had only just been manufactured. Naphtha 
and bitumen were produced in great abundance above Babylon, near the modern 
town of Hit. These served as substitutes for mortar and cement; and so lasting 
were they, that the layers of rushes and palm-leaves laid between the courses of 
bricks as a binding material, are found at this day in the ruins of Babylon as per- 
fect as if a year had not elapsed since they were put together."— Ta^/^or's Ancient 
History. 



Babylonia or Chaldea. 27 

2. Three monarchies successively occupied the basin of 
these rivers:. 1. The Chaldean, or First Baby- 
lonian Monarchy ; 2. The Assyrian Empire ; 3. 
The Later Babylonian Monarchy. Chaldea, or 



Chaldean and 

Babylonian 
Monarchies. 



Babylonia, occupied the plain which extends north from the 
Persian Gulf, and which was orisinally called i 

. . 1 , 11 Mesopotamia. 

Shmar. The district lying between these tAv^o I . 

rivers was afterwards called by the Greeks Mes' o-2)0-ta' mi-a 
(from 7nesoSy midst, and pofamoi, rivers). 

3. The Chaldees had, as early as 2000 B.C., made con- 
siderable progress in the arts, particularly in architecture. 
With their materials for building, brick and bitu- 
men, they constructed vast edifices, the ruins of 



The Chaldees. 



some of which have been discovered in recent times by the 
explorations of Botta and Layard, at Nineveh and Babylon. 
Monuments have also been exhumed, bearing inscriptions in 
what are called cu-ne' i-form (wedge-shaped) characters, and 
the deciphering of these has served to throw a flood of light 
upon the early history of this people.* 

4. The city of Babylon, f although founded probably more 
than twenty-two centuries B.C., was, during its early history, 

* This kind of writing was used for monumental records, and was either hewn or 
carved in rocks and sculptures, or impressed on tiles and bricks. The most ancient 
date that can be assigned to this kind of writing is about 2000 b.c, and it seems not 
to have been used much, if at all, about 300 b.c. Much labor and erudition have 
been expended in deciphering these cuneiform inscriptions. The following, which 
is the name of Darius in these characters, will give some idea of their form and 
appearance: 

The great inscription of Behistun, in Persia, is of peculiar interest and value. 
It is engraved in three forms of cuneiform writing, upon the perpendicular face of 
a mountain, at an elevation of 300 feet, and contains an account of the genealogy 
of Darius, his exploits, and the provinces of the empire. This inscription was 
deciphered by Sir Henry Rawlinson. 

t The native name of the city was Babel, meaning " gate of God." It was here, 
according to Scripture history, that men attempted to erect the Tower of Babel, 
but were prevented by the confusion of tongues. An account of this has been re- 
cently discovered among the cuneiform tablets now in the British Museum. 



28 Ancient History. 



a city of minor importance, for Ur and others were capital 
cities while it continued to be a mere Tillage.* 
Several cities are mentioned as prominent — 



Babylon. 



Babylon, Ur, Ac'cad, E'rech, Oal'neh, and some others. Of 
these Babylon afterwards was the capital of the monarchy, 
and, after the Assyrian conquest, became, through the enter- 
prise, ambition, and luxurious taste of its reigning sovereigns, 
the most splendid city in the world. Babylonia 
was soath of Assyria, being separated from it by 
the limit of the alluvial plain. The name Chaldea 



Babylonia 
and Chaldea. 



was given more particularly to the region bordering on Arabia 

and the Persian Gulf. 

5. The Hebrew records afford but scanty information in 
regard to the origin and history of these early 
monarchies ; but the remains of the history 



Berosus. 



written by Be-ro'sus, with what has been gleaned from the 
inscriptions on the walls of ruined palaces, and on the monu- 
ments, give us a slight clue to some of the prominent events 
in Babylonian and Assyrian history. Berosus was a priest 
of Babylon, who lived about three centuries B.C., and from 
ancient records compiled a work in which he gave lists of 
kings whose reigns extended from 2000 B.C. to the conquest 
of the Babylonian monarchy. 

6. These lists are lost, but fragments remain in the works 
of other writers, showing that a Chaldean dynasty ruled from 
about 2000 B.C. to 1543 B.C., which was succeeded 
by an Arabian dynasty that lasted 245 years. 



Early Dynasties. 



This was followed by one of forty-five kings, probably Assyr- 
ian, who held sway during more than five centuries, to 772 
B.C., after which came the reign of tlie noted king Pul, who 



*"The architectural remains discovered in southern Babylonia, taken in con- 
junction with the monumental records, seem to indicate that Babylon was not at 
first the capital, nor indeed a town of great importance. It probably owed its 
position at the head of Nimrod's cities to the powei- and pre-eminence whereto it 
afterward attained rather than to any original superiority that it could boast over 
the places coupled with if—Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. 



Later Babylonian Monarchy, 29 



is called in the Scriptures an Assyrian. This reign end^d at 
the famous Era of Na-bo-nas'sar, 747 B.C., which is important, 
because Babylonia then resumed its ancient inde- 
pendence, that had been absorbed in the Assyr- 
ian empire since 1250 B.C., and because this date 



Era of 
Nabonassar. 



is fixed by certain astronomical phenomena observed by 
Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer. 

7. Later Babylonian Monarchy. By what is called the 
Canon of Ptolemy, the line of Babylonian kings becomes 
knoAvn to us from the year 747 B.C. to 330 B.C., 
when Babylon became a part of the dominions of 
Alexander the Great. During this period Baby- 



Canon of 
Ptolemy. 



Ion again became subject to Assyria (680 B.C.), and so con- 
tinued till the taking of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, by the 
Medes (625 B.C.), when the Babylonian king, Na-bo-po-las'sar, 
who had formed an alliance with the Medes, was 
acknowledged as an independent sovereign, and 



Nabopolassar. 



received a share of the conquered Assyrian dominions. The 
later Babylonian kingdom, then formed, lasted till the taking 
of Babylon by Cyrus the Persian (538 B.C.). 

8. Though of brief duration, this was a period of great 
splendor. Nabopolassar's reign, which was one of military 
glory, was succeeded by that of the celebrated King Neb-u- 

chad-nez'zar, who defeated the king of Egypt, i 

and subdued Je-hoi'a-kim, Kins: of Judah. Sub- Nebuchad- 

^ I nezzar. 

sequently he destroyed Jerusalem, and put an 



end to the kingdom of Judah, under Zed-e-ki'ah, carrying its 
inhabitants captives to Babylon (586 B.C.). Tyre also fell be- 
fore his conquering arms (585 B.C.). He afterward turned his 
attention to the embellishment of his capital, and erected in 
Babylon many edifices of wonderful extent and magnificence. 
9. Babylon formed a vast square crossed diagonally by the 
Euphrates, and surrounded by a double row of 
walls, which, according to the account given by 



Babylon. 



Herodotus, were 335 feet high and '^h feet thick, enclosing 



30 Ancient History. 



an area of nearly 200 square miles. These walls were pierced 
with a hundred brazen gates and defended by numerous 
towers. The royal palace, within which was the famous 
*' hanging garden/' classed among the Seven Wonders of 
the World, and the great temple of Bel, were the most 
remarkable buildings.* The latter was constructed in the 
form of a pyramid of eight square stages, each side of the 
basement being 600 feet; and on the top, reached by a wind- 
ing ascent, there was an image of the god, 40 feet high. 
It was this magnificence that prompted Nebuchadnezzar's 
haughty boast: ^"^ Is not this great Babylon that I have built 
for the house of the kingdom, by the might of my power, 
and for the honor of my majesty?" f 

10. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian 
kingdom declined. He had four successors, the last of whom 
was Na-bo-na'di-us, who associated his son Bel- 
shaz'zar with him on the throne. During this 



Fall of Babylon. 



reign the kingdom was invaded by Cyrus the Great, king of 
Persia, and Nabonadius was defeated. Babylon, also, being 
carelessly defended by Belshazzar, was entered by Cyrus, who 
diverted the course of the Euphrates, and Babylonia became 
a Persian province (538 ^.c.).]; 



* " Within the precincts of the royal palace, Nebuchadnezzar raised up to a vast 
height a pile of stone substructions, giving them as far as possible the appearance 
of natural hills. He then planted the whole with trees of different kinds, and thus 
constructed what is called the hanging garden ; all which he did to please his wife, 
who had been brought up in Media, and delighted in the scenery of mountain 
regions, "—^erosiis. 

+ " The descriptions of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writers 
are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and Ctesias. Those 
authors were, both of them, eye-witnesses of the glories of Babylon—not, indeed, 
at their highest point, but before they had greatly declined— and left accounts of 
the city and its chief buildings, which the historians and geographers of later 
times were, for the most part, content to copy."— Z)?-. Smith. 

i " Belshazzar, who was probably a mere youth, left to enjoy the supreme 
power without check or control, neglected the duty of watching the enemy, and 
gave himself up to enjoyment. The feast of which we read in Daniel, and which 
suffered such an awful interruption, may have been in part a religious festivity; 
but it indicates, nevertheless, the self-indulgent temper of the king, who could give 



The Assyrian Empire. 31 

11. The Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians were probably 
a Chaldean colony that settled in the region of the upper 
Tigris. The capital was at first As'shur (now Ki'leh Sher'gat), 
on the right bank of that river; but afterward the seat of the 
empire was the renowned city of Nin'eveh, about 
sixty miles above, on the same river. The latter 



Nineveh. 



subsequently became one of the finest and most populous 
cities in the world. Ca'lah, another important city on the 
Tigris, and for a time the capital of the empire, was very 
ancient, its foundation being ascribed, in the ancient Hebrew 
records, to the patriarch Asshur. 

12. The history of the Assyrian monarchy, extending over 
more than six centuries, may be divided into three periods: 
1. Previous to the conquest of Babylon (about 
1250 B.C.); 2. From the conquest of Babylon to 



Periods. 



the reign of Tiglath-pile'ser II. (745 B.C.); 3. From the acces- 
sion of Tiglath-pileser II. to the fall of Nineveh (625 B.C.). 
Of the first period little is known. The monumental inscrip- 
tions supply two lists of kings, some of whom seem to have 
been connected by intermarriage with the con- 
temporaneous Chaldean monarchs. Among the 



First Period, 



most celebrated monarchs was Shal-man-e'ser I., a great con- 
queror, and the builder of Calah.* 

13. During the first three centuries of the second period, 
the chronology is very imperfect. A great monarch — 
Tiglath-pileser I. — flourished, and made many conquests. 

himself so entirely up to merriment at such a time. While the king and his ' thou- 
sand nobles ' drank wine out of the sacred vessels of the Jews, the Persian archers 
entered the city, and a scene of carnage ensued. ' In that night was Belshazzar 
slain.' ''—Rmdinson. 

* To this period belongs the legendary history of Ninus and his illustrious queen 
Semir'amis, who succeeded him, and became one of the greatest conquering 
potentates of antiquity. She is said to have rebuilt Babjion, adorning it with 
splendid palaces and other costly buildings. She also enlarged and embellished 
Nineveh, in which she sometimes resided. Music and the arts were also cultivated 
by her. Her expeditions, we are told by some of the ancient writers, were con- 
ducted on a scale of incredible magnificence, her armies numbering millions of 
men. The history of this wonderful queen is found only among the Greek legends. 



32 Ancient History. 



In the latter part of the period, Oalah was the capital, and 
became a splendid city, as is shown by the ruins of its palaces 
and temples which have been disinterred in recent 
years. The dominions of the empire were greatly 



Second Period. 



enlarged by conquests made in Armenia, Syria, Palestine, and 
Phoenicia. It was toward the end of the period that Babylon, 
under Nabonassar, became for a short time independent. 

14. The third period commenced with the brilliant con- 
quests of Tiglath-pileser II., who carried the arms of Assyria 
into distant regions. Egypt and Syria were re- 
duced, and Palestine was invaded, whence many 



Third Period. 



of the Jews were carried captive. His successor, Shal-man-e'ser 
IV., subdued Phoenicia, but was defeated in an attack on 
Tyre. The siege of Samaria was commenced during his 
reign (733 B.C.). Sargon, his successor, was one 
of the greatest monarchs of this period. This 



Sargon. 



king took Samaria (721 B.C.), and settled the Israelites in 
Media and other newly-conquered provinces. He also carried 
on a successful war with Egypt, and received the submission 
of Cyprus. The whole reign of this monarch was a continued 
succession of conquests (721-705 B.C.). 

15. The splendid city and palace at Khor'sa-bad, near 
Nineveh, were built under this monarch. This is now only a 
small village (Mosul) of Asiatic Turkey.* Here have been 
found the records of Sargon's conquests, in the 
inscriptions which he caused to be made, and in 
which he mentions the names of the kings whom 



Records of 
the Reign. 



he subdued, and enumerates the spoils and tributes which he 
obtained. In one of these inscriptions he says: ''I imposed 
tribute on Pharaoh of Egypt; on Tsamsi, Queen of Arabia; 
on Ith'amar, the Sabsean, in gold, spices, horses, and camels.'' 
16. Sen-nach'e-rib, the son and successor of Sargon, ob- 

* Here in 1846 the ruins of a magnificent edifice were discovered, leading to the 
subsequent researches, under Layard and others, that have shed so much light on 
Assyrian history. [See cut, page 33.] 



The Assyrian Empire. 



33 



tallied possession of Babylon, and made two expeditions 
against Judali. In the tirst of these, he carried i ^ — - 

° • 1 • 1 Sennacherib. 

away 200,000 of the Jews captives; but in the I . 

second he failed entirely, his army being destroyed by a 
sudden and remarkable pestilence. This was during the 
reign of the Jewish king Hez-e-kl'ah. Sennacherib was a 
short time afterward slain by two of his sons (G80 B.C.). 




Warrior and Horses (Khorsabad— Nineveh). 

17. The last great king of Assyria was E-sar-had'don, son 
of Sennacherib. His conquests extended over a large part 
of western Asia, and he claimed authority over 
Egypt and Ethiopia. Manas'seh, king of Judah, 



Esarhaddon. 



was brought as a prisoner before him at Babylon; but, after 
a few years' detention, was restored to his throne by the 
clemency of the Assyrian monarch. This king reigned alter- 
nately at Babylon and Nineveh. His son Asshur- 
bani-pal (called by some of the Greeks Sar-dan-a- 



Asshurbanipal. 



pa'lus) succeeded him (according to Eawlinson, about 667 
B.C.), during whose reign Assyria reached the height of its 



34 Ancient History, 

greatness and splendor. He made great conquests, built a 
magnificent palace, and established a royal library at Nineveh. 
He was a great lover and patron of music and the arts. The 
sculptured slabs taken from his palace, representing him 
engaged in hunting, are now in the British Museum. After 
this splendid reign Assyria rapidly declined. A vast horde 
of Scythians, from the region north of the Caucasus, made 
incursions into the territory; and two invasions were made 
by the Medes, under Cy-ax'a-res, in the second 
of which they were joined by Nabopolassar, the 



Fall of Nineveh, 



Assyrian governor of Babylon, in an attack upon Nineveh, 
which was taken and given to the flames. 

18. The last king of Assyria, Sar'a-cus (sometimes called 
Sardanaimlus II.), perished in the conflagration (625 B.C.). 
One of the Greek historians, Otesias {te'slie-as), describes this 
king, under the name Sai-danapalus, as an effeminate voluptu- 
ary, spending his time in idleness, and incapable of making 
any exertion for the defence of his kingdom. At last aroused 
from this ignoble sloth, he assumes the com- 
mand of the army, makes a brilliant effort to re- 
pulse the enemy, but is defeated. He then retires 



Legend of 

Sardanapalus. 



to his palace, erects a large funeral pyre, upon which he 
places his richest treasures and his favorite wives, and finally 
mounting it himself, sets fire to it and perishes in the flames. 
The whole story is now believed to be a fiction, although it 
has long had a place in ancient history. Byron's drama 
Sardanapahis is based on this account. So utterly was Nine- 
veh destroyed, that when Xen'o-phon passed it (401 B.C.), 
during the expedition of which he gives an account (the An- 
ah'a-sis), the very name had been forgotten, though he testi- 
fies to the extent of the deserted city, stating that the height 
of the ruined walls was 150 feet.* 



* " Traditions of the unrivaled size and magnificence of Nineveh were equally 
familiar with the Greek and Roman writers, and to the Arab geographers. But 
the city had fallen so completely into decay before the period of authentic history, 



TTie Assyrian 3mpire. 



35 



Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization. 

19. The Chaldean or Babylonian civilization was, in some 
respects, different from the Assyrian, though they had much 
in common. The situation of Babylonia, in the alluvial plain 
of the Tigris and Euphi-ates, was quite different from that 
of Assyria, in the higher plateau region near the upper course 
of the Tigris. The constant interminglijig of the Babylonians 
and Assyrians, and their union for many centuries under the 
same government, naturally 
led to considerable uniform- 
ity of manners and customs. 
These people, in general, be- 
longed to the Semitic race; 
but in the earliest times the 
people of Accad, who came 
from the mountain regions to 
the north, were Turanians ; 
and the cuneiform inscrip- 
tions for many centuries were 
in the Turanian language. 

20. The Chaldeans were, 
from the first, an architec- 
tural people, and they erect- 
ed many imposing edifices 

out of their simple materials Babylonian Brick. 

— brick and bitumen. Their favorite form was that of the 
pyramid, rising in steps or stages, sometimes to 
a great height. The baked bricks which they 




Chaldeans. 



used in building their palaces were stamped with a legend 
in cuneiform letters, as seen in the cut. They also under- 



that no description of it, or even of any of its monuments, is to be found in any- 
ancient author of trust:'— Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. The destruction of 
Nineveh forms the subject of the prophecy of Nahum, who lived about a century- 
earlier, when the Assyrian empire was at the height of its power and glory. 



86 



Ancient History. 



stood the working of metals, and to some extent the use of the 
loom. Their trading caravans journeyed to Bactria, Persia, 
and Media, and the "ships of Ur" sailed along the coasts 
of the Persian Gulf. They early became noted for their at- 
tention to astronomy, some of their recorded obseryations 
extending as far back as 2234 B.C. 

2i. In the height of Assyrian glory, during the splendid 
reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Sardanapalus, architec- 

1 ture, painting, and sculpture had reached a very 

high degree of perfection. Carving in ivory, 
modelling, and metallurgy, with kindred arts, had 
also made great progress. The sculptured panellings which 



Architecture, 
painting, etc, 








From the Palace op Sennacherib, Koyunjik (Nineveh). 

have been found, representing single figures, of kings and 
deities, and battle and hunting scenes, evince great delicacy, 
taste, and skill, and a far greater accuracy in expression than 
anything found in Egyptian art. The walls of the palaces 
were adorned with alabaster work most brilliantly painted, 
and the ceilings were gilded and inlaid with ivory. 

22. They understood the manufacture of transparent glass, 
constructed aqueducts, and knew the use of the 
arch and the application of the lever and other * 
mechanical powers. The records of great kings were ingeni- 
ously inscribed on slabs and cylinders, bricks and stones, rock 



Manufactures. 



Tlie Assyrian Empire. 



37 



tablets, and the walls of palaces. In the preceding cut is seen 
a section of a pictorial record of this kind. Various branches 
of learning — astronomy, geography, history — were cultivated. 
23. In furniture, costume, and the common ornaments of 
the house and the person, these people displayed a refined 
taste. Their chairs, tables, and other articles 
were of elegant designs, and often of rich mate- 



Useful Arts. 



rials and beautiful workmanship. In the arts of weaving and 




Interior op an Assyrian Palace (Khorsabad), 

Showing colossal statues of winged lions with human heads, eagle-headed figures, 

etc., such as were objects of worship among the Assyrians. 

embroidery they especially excelled; and the Assyrian textile 
fabrics — in linen, cotton, and silk, were in high repute. Their 
pottery — vases, cups, utensils, etc. — showed great beauty of 
form. Many of them were afterwards copied by the G-reeks. 
24. They practiced agriculture with peculiar skill, and by 
careful irrigation raised large crops of sesame, 
millet, and wheat. The date palm was cultivated 
in all parts of Mesopotamia. The vine, fig, and olive were 



Agriculture. 



38 Ancient History. 



common plants, as were also the indigo and the sugar-cane. 
Herodotus says that they made all the oil they used from the 
sesame-plant, while the fruit of the palm supplied them with 
bread, wine, and sweet sirup. They reared the camel and the 
common domestic animals, including oxen and sheep. They 
were great lovers of the chase, and their hunting-dogs were 
very famous.* In short, what remains of their civilization 
proves them to have been a refined, ingenious, and highly 
gifted people, by whom the arts of comfort and luxury were 
carried to a high degree of advancement, f 

25. They were also a very religious people, their whole 
life, in every phase, social and political, being governed by 
the dictates of a remarkable religious system, 
abounding in rites and ceremonies. Their deities 



Religion. 



were numerous and variously represented. The Supreme 
Being was worshiped under several different forms and sym- 
bols. The monuments and ruined palaces contain many 
strange figures, as winged bulls and horses, men with the 
heads of various animals, and animals with human heads. A 
winged human figure with the head of a hawk or an eagle is 
very common among the bas-reliefs and sculptures. All these 
figures doubtless symbolized prominent religious ideas and 
beliefs. Among the Babylonians, Baal, or Bel, was the chief 
deity; while Asshur, the spiritual personification of the city of 
that name, was the supreme god of the Assyrians. \ 

* Among the curious objects excavated from the ruins, models of favorite dogs 
are very numerous. Of them there are many specimens in the British Museum, 
obtained from the palace of Esarhaddon, at Nineveh. 

t Herodotus thus describes the costume of the Babylonians of his time: "Their 
dress is a linen tunic, reaching to the feet, and above it another tunic made of wool, 
besides which they have a short white cloak thrown around them, and shoes of a 
pecuhar fashion, not unlike those worn by the Boeotians. They have long hair, 
wear turbans on their heads, and anoint their whole body with perfumes." 

X Below these supreme divinities came the Sun-god, the Moon-god, and the Air- 
god; and after these were arranged " the fifty great gods," and then the three hun- 
dred spirits of heaven and the six hundred spirits of earth, besides many local 
deities. 



Review Outline. 



I. CHALDEAN, or FIRST BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 

Babylon (2200 B.C.), Accad, Erecb, Calueli; lists of Berosus; 
Chaldean Dynasty (2000-1543 B.C.); Arabian Dynasty (to 1298 
B.C.); dynasty of forty-five kings (to 773 B.C.); reign of Pul 
(to 747 B. c. , era of Nabonassar). 

II. LATER BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. 

Babylon subject to Assyria (680 b.c); splendid reigns of Nabo- 
polassar and Nebuchadnezzar; conquest of Judah and destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem; Israelites carried captives to Babylon; con- 
quest of Tyre ; time of Babylon's greatest splendor. Nabona- 
dius and Belshazzar; taking of Babylon by Cyrus (538 B.C.). 

III. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
Three Periods: 

(1) Previous to the Conquest of Babylon (1250 B.C. ?) 

Reign of Slialmaueser I., a great conqueror, the builder 
of Calah. Legendary history of Ninus and Semira- 
mis. [See note, page 31.] 

(2) From the Conquest of Babylon to 745 B.C. 

Tiglath-pile'ser I., a great conqueror; capital, Calah, a 
splendid city. Conquests in Armenia, Syria, Pales- 
tine, and Phenicia. Babylon independent under 
Nabonassar. 

(3) From 745 B.C. to the Fall of Nineveh. 

Brilliant reigns of Tiglath-pileser II., Shalmaneser IV., 
and Sargon; great conquests (745-705 B.C.). Taking 
of Samaria (721 b.c). Building of palace of Khorsa- 
bad. Sennacherib; expedition against Judah ; mirac- 
ulous destruction of the Assyrian army. Esarhaddon, 
reigned at Nineveh and Babylon. Asshur-bani-pal 
(Sardanapalus), conqueror, and patron of the arts. 
Attacks by the Scythians and Medes. Saracus, or 
Sardanapalus II; taking of Nineveh (625 B.C.). 



40 Ancient History. 



SECTION 11. 
The Mediai^ Monarchy. 

26. Media was situated to the south of the Caspian Sea, 
forming a part of the great plateau region of Iran, now 
Persia. The early history of the Medes is wrapped 
in obscurity. They come into notice in the ninth 



Situation. 



century B.C., when they were brought into subjection to the 
Assyrian Empire (830 B.C.). About a century 
later, Sargon occupied a part of their territory. 



Early history. 



into which he carried the Israelite captives. In the middle 
of the seventh century (650 B.C.), the great Median monarchy 
makes its appearance on the field of history, though the Greek 
historians relate many events of a previous date. 

27. The Medes invaded Assyria a few years after this 
date, but they were signally defeated in an attack on Nineveh 
(633 B.C.). For a short time they were occupied in resisting 
the Scythians, who made an inroad into their country; and, 
when freed from that danger, they renewed their 
attack on Nineveh, which they captured and 
destroyed (625 B.C.). Cyaxares, their monarch 



Destruction of 
Nineveh. 



at that time, extended his conquests, penetrating into Asia 
Minor, and carrying on war against the Lydians. He is re- 
garded by some as the founder of the Median monarchy. The 
reign of his son and successor, As-ty'a-ges, was peaceful. He 
made alliances with Lydia and Babylon, and his daughter was 
married to a Persian prince. She gave birth to Cyrus, after- 
ward called the Great. Cyrus, being bold and 
aspiring, put himself at the head of the Persian 
tribes, and marching with a large army into 



Cyrus the 
Great. 



Media, deposed Astyages, his grandfather, and uniting the 
Median and Persian dominions under himself as king, laid the 
foundation of the great Persian Empire (558 B.C.). 

28. Civilization. Amon^ the Medes were many people of 



Kingdoms in Asia Minor. 41 



Turanian and Semitic origin. Their architecture was devoid 
of artistic beauty, but possessed a certain barbaric grandeur. 
The royal palace at Ecbat'ana, their capital, was 
constructed of wood plated with gold and silver. 



Art 



In the early times they were a simple, hai'dy people ; but 
after the conquest of Nineveh they adopted the 
luxurious habits of the Assyrians, so that the 



Habits, 



court of Astyages resembled that of Sardanapalus. Their 
religion was chiefly that of Zo-ro-as'ter, the great 
spiritual teacher of the nations of Iran, whose 



Religion. 



doctrines are contained in the sacred books called Zend- 
Avesta.* The magi, a priesthood claiming supernatural 
powers, exerted a great influence over the people. 



SECTION III. 

Kingdoms in" Asia Minor. 

29. Several powerful monarchies existed in Asia Minor 
prior to the time of Cyrus the Great, the chief of which were 
Phrygia, Cilicia, and Lydia. The Phrygians were 
a brave but coarse and brutal people, and very 



Phrygians. 



fond of war. Their capital was Gor-di-e'um, and Midas was 
the most noted of their monarchs. Phrygia was conquered 
by the Lydians in the sixth century (560 B.C.). 

30. Cilicia was early overrun by the Assyrians, but existed 
as a tributary kingdom. Tarsus was founded, it is said, by 
Sennacherib, and Sardanapalus married a Cilician i 

■'• Cilicia. 

princess. This kingdom was enabled .to resist I 
the assaults of the Lydian monarchs, and maintained its 
independence during the reign of Cyrus, but was afterward 
annexed to the Persian Empire. 

* The period at which Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, lived is not known. It was 
probably before 1200 b.c. [See Persia.] 



42 



Ancient History. 



31. Lydian Monarchy. Lydia was situated in the western 
part of Asia Minor, and was especially noted for its fruitful 
soil and great mineral wealth. Its chief river, the Pac-to'lus, 

abounded in gold, which was 
also found in the neighbor- 
ing mines. Hence the Ly- 
dians soon.became corrupted 
by luxury and vicious indul- 
gences. The Lydian king- 
dom is supposed to have 
existed in Asia Minor from 
a very ancient period, but 
its early history is fabulous 
and unreliable. For about 
two centuries this monarchy 
occupied a prominent posi- 
tion in the history of western 
Asia, and when Cy-ax'a-res 
the Mede overran this part 
of tlie country, he was check- 
ed in his career of conquest 




Ancient Warrior. 



by King Alyattes {d-le-afUz); and after a war of six years, 
in which he was often defeated by the Lydians, 
Cyaxares retired beyond the Ha'lys, the boundary 



Alyattes. 



of the Lydian kingdom at that time. 

32. This war between the Lydians and Medes is said to 

have been terminated in a singular way.* Their two great 
armies had come to an engagement (610 B.C., or, 
according to some writers, 584 B.C.), when, in 

the midst of the battle, a total eclipse of the sun occurred. 



Treaty of Peace. 



* " On the refusal of Alyattes to give up his suppliants, when Cyaxares sent to 
demand them of him, war broke out between the Lydians and the Medes, and con- 
tinued for five years, with various success. In the course of it, the Medes gained 
many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over 
the Medes. Beside their other battles there was one night engagement. As, how- 
ever, the balance had not inclined in favor of either nation, another combat took 



Lydian Monarchy. 43 

wliich so alarmed the soldiers that they immediately retired 
from the conflict. The two monarchs thereupon concluded 
not only a peace, but a firm treaty of alliance with each other; 
and peace continued to subsist between these two powers 
until the time of Cyrus, about half a century afterward. 

33. Alyattes is said to have reigned about forty years after 
the close of this war, and to have constructed a vast monu- 
ment, scarcely inferior to the great pyramids of 
Egypt. Its base was formed of immense blocks 
of stone, the structure above being a huge mound 



Tomb of 
Alyattes. 



of earth. This mound has been explored in modern times, 
and a chamber found within, formed of solid blocks of mar- 
ble; but it was evident that it had been rifled of its contents 
long before. It was without doubt the tomb of Alyattes. 

34. Alyattes was succeeded (about 568 B.C.) by his son 
Croesus {hre'sus), noted for his immense wealth, being by 
far the richest monarch of his time. He is also 
distinguished as the last monarch of Lydia; for 



Croesus. 



having made w^ar upon Cyrus, the king of Persia, he was 
entirely defeated; and his capital, Sardis, being taken by the 
enemy, he was made a prisoner, and condemned by Cyrus 
to be burnt alive upon a funeral pyre, but was afterward 
released. Thus, within a very few weeks, from being a power- 
ful and prosperous monarch, ruler over thirteen nations, he 
was reduced to the condition of a captive and a beggar, depen- 
dent upon the will of a despot wliose anger he had provoked. 
It was in this way that Lydia became a province of the Per- 
sian Empire (554 B.C.). 

place in the sixth year, in the course of which, just as the battle was growing 
warm, day was on a sudden changed into night. This event had been foretold by 
Thales, the Milesian, who forewarned the lonians of it, fixing for it the very year 
in which it actually took place. The Medes and Lydians, when they observed the 
change, ceased fighting, and were aUke anxious to have terms of peace agreed 
on.''''— Bawlinsori's Herodotus, 



44 



Ancient History. 



Chronological Synopsis of Contemporaneous 

Events. 



2200 

2000) 

1543) 

1543) 

1298 i 

1250 

1250 ) 

772) 

747 

745 

721 

705) 



650 

625 
610 
586 I 
585' 
568 
560 
558 
554 
538 



Chaldean and Babylo 
NiAN Monarchies. 



Babylon founded. 



Chaldean Dynasty. 



Arabian Dynasty. 



Babylonia and Assyria 
united. 

Assyrian Dynasty. 



Babylon independent, 
under Nabonassar. 



Babylon subject to As- 
syria. 



Nabopolassar. 



Destruction of Jerusa- 
lem and Tyre by Ne- 
buchadnezzar. 



Babylon taken by C3aTis. 



Assyrian Empire. 



Median and Minor 
Monarchies. 



First Period of 
' rian History. 
Shalmaneser I 



Conquest of Babylon 
by Tiglath-pileser I, 



End of reign of Pul. 

Tiglath-pileser II. 

Samaria taken by Sar- 
gon. 

Reign of Sennacherib. 



Esarhaddon begins to 

reign. 
Asshur-bani-pal. 



( Nineveh taken by the 
-c Medes — end of the 
( Assyrian Empire, 



Media subject to As- 
syria. 



Media rises to impor- 
tance. 

Reign of Cyaxares the 
Mede. 

War between the 
Medes and Lydians. 



Croesus begins to reign 

in Lydia. 
Phrygia conquered by 

the Lydians. 
Union of the Medes and 

Persians under Cyrus 
Conquest of Lydia by 

Cyrus. 



Egypt. 45 



SECTION IV. 

The Aiq^ciENT Egyptiai^s. 

36. Egypt is certainly one of the oldest of nations. Its 
monuments, — among which are the pyramids, — the ruins of 
its vast and splendid temples, its obelisks and sphinxes, 
and the other remains of its peculiar civilization, are the 
most interesting objects of antiquity. The origin 
of the ancient Egyptians is unknown; but they 



Origin. 



were of the Caucasian race, and probably related to the oldest 
races of central Asia. By ethnologists they are classed among 
the Hamites, or descendants of Ham ; but they differed 
essentially from the tribes who lived to the westward of the 
Nile, as well as from other African races.* 

36. The early history of Egypt is involved in fable, and 
but little reliance can be placed on any system of Egyptian 
chronology. In the time of the Greek historian 
Herodotus, the priests claimed for the country 
an antiquity of more than 11,000 years. In the third cen- 
tury B.C., Man'e-tho, an Egyptian priest, compiled a history 
of his country, which he divided into thirty 
dynasties. This work has perished; but abstracts 
from it are preserved in other ancient writings, 
and these, with the histories written by Herodotus and Di-o- 



Chronology. 



Sources of its 
history. 



* " Now. one can say without fear of contradiction, th* most valuable Egyptian 
museum in the world is in Cairo. That which was previously carried away being, 
for the most part, easily accessible, proves to belong to the later rather than the 
earlier dynasties. Unwearied digging has enabled Mariette [a French archjeologistl 
to reach the records of the ancient empire, and to show, what we never before 
suspected, that the glory of Egyptian art belongs^to the age of Cheops, and only 
its decadence to the age of Rameses II. Not only the art, but the culture, the 
religion, the political organization of Egypt are carried back to the third dynasty; 
and Menes, the first historic king, dawns upon our knowledge, not as a primitive 
ba'-barian, but as the result of a long stage of tmrecorded development. T do not 
hesitate to say, that since Champollion discovered the key to the hieroglyphics, no 
scholar has thrown such a broad and clear light upon Egyptian life and history as 
Mariette."— 5a2/arcf Taylor. 




Ruins of an Egyptian Temple.* 



* " As we approach Karnak (a part of Thebes), the most striking objects are two of the 
enormous propylons so characteristic of Egyptian architecture. They are truncated 
pyramids pieiced with a gateway. The sides slope inward from a rectangular base, and 
are surmounted by a heavy cornice, on which is sculptured the symbol known to the 
Greeks as the Agathodceman. a winged sun, or scarabaeus. It was the number of the 
propylons that gained for Thebes the Homeric epithet of 'the hundred-gated city.' "— 
Mci'nning''s Land of the Pharaohs. 



Egypt. 



47 



do'rus, and the allusions made to Egypt in the Jewish scrip- 
tures, besides what has been gleaned in modern times from the 
hieroglyphic inscriptions on the monuments, and rolls of papy'- 

rus found in the tombs, consti- 
tute our knowledge of ancient 



Egyptian history.* The his- 
tory of the first seventeen of 
Manetho's dynasties, covering 
a period of about twelve cen- 
turies, is very obscure, for the 
monuments only give us a few 
scattered facts and dates. 

37. The first of these dynas- 
ties is supposed to have com- 
menced about 2700 B.C.; but 
considerable diver- 
sity of opinion pre- 
vails on this point. 
In the early portion of this 
period, Egyptian civilization 
was in an advanced state, and 
Memphis was a great and flour- 
ishing city. The fourth dynasty 
is especially noted for the erec- 
Geoghaphical Study. tion of many of the pyramids 

Find the Situation of: Goshen, Hep- /250O B.C.). One of the mOSt 
TANOMis, Thebais, Sais, Pelusium, Gizeh, ^ ^ p '1 i i, • 

Heliopolis, Memphis, Hermopolis, Kar- notcd CVCUts of its early hlS- 
nak, Luxor, Syene, Philae, Mt. Sinai. ^Ory WaS the iuvasiou of the 

country by a warlike race, who conquered the nation and ruled 
over it for several centuries. These invaders are known in 




Early 
dynasties. 



*The physical features of the Egyptians and the affinities of their language 
seem to indicate a similarity of origin to that of the European races. One writer 
remarks: "The further you go back, the more European the faces found depicted 
on the monuments become;" and he illustrates this by two portraits discovered in 
a tomb of the third dynasty, and hence older than the pyramids. He also points 
out many Egyptian words that are almost identical in Egyptian, Sanskrit, English, 



48 Ancient History. 



history as the Hijh'sos, or Shepherd Kings (from 1900 to 1525 
B.C.).* They ruled in Lower Egypt as military 
despots, and very much oppressed the native peo- 



Hyksos. 



pie. It was probably during the reign of one of these that 
Joseph became the chief minister, and that Jacob and his 
family were allowed to settle in the land of 
Goshen, t It is supposed that the Israelites re- 



Exodus. 



mained in Egypt a little more than two centuries (215 years), 
the Exodus taking place during the seventeenth dynasty 
(1652 B.C.), before the Shepherds had been expelled. 

38. The three centuries following the expulsion of the 
Shepherd Kings, from the eighteenth to the twentieth 
dynasty, may be considered the most splendid period of 
Egyptian history (1525 to 1200 B c). Some of the greatest 
monarchs belong to this period. The most 
renowned were Thoth'mes III., who made many 



Thothmes. 



conquests, and constructed magnificent temples at Thebes, 
Memphis, and other places; Thothmes IV., who caused 
the great Sphinx to be constructed; and Seti, son of Ea- 
me'ses I., who built the Great Hall of Karnak, and con- 
structed for himself the most beautiful of all the royal 
tombs. According to Manetho, he reigned upward of fifty 
years. This king, called Sesos'tris by the Greeks, made 

German, etc. Thus the English word mother is, in Egyptian, mut ; in Sanskrit, 
nidtar; in Greek, meter; in Latin, mater; in German, mutter; and in Gaelic, 
mathair.—See "■Nile Gleanings,'''' by Villiers Stuart (1879). 

* " The Theban monarchs of the thirteenth dynasty, less warlike or less fortunate 
than their predecessors, found themselves imable to resist the terrible 'Shepherds,' 
and quitting their capital, fled into Ethiopia, while the invaders wreaked their 
vengeance on the memorials of the Sesortasens" [monarchs of the twelfth dynasty]. 
— Eawlinson's Ancient History. 

t " Since the Pharaoh of Joseph must have been a powerful ruler and held 
Lower Egypt, there can be no question that he was, if the dates be correct, a 

shepherd of the fifteenth dynasty It seems perfectly incredible that 

Joseph should be the minister of a native Egyptian king."— /SmtY/i's Dictionary of 
the Bible. The hatred of Eg^T^tians toward foreigners would have naturally pre- 
vented the appointment of Joseph to so high an office, and the settlement of the 
Israelites in Egypt. Under the rule of a foreign monarch, there could have been 
no such objection to these things. 



Egypt 



49 



Decline of 

Egypt- 



many conquests. Eameses II. was also a very great conqueror. 

He adorned both Egypt and Nubia with many i 

splendid tem2)les and other edifices. Egyptian I L_ 

art reached its highest development in his reign. The 
exploits of these monarchs are recorded in pictures and 
hieroglyphs on the monuments. 

39. Under the nineteenth dynasty, Egypt attained her 
highest point of national power and 
greatness. During the next she 
rapidly declined, and 
for almost two centuries 
scarcely undertook a sin- 
gle important enterprise. The pre- 
dominant influence of the priests 
was a marked feature of this period, 
during a part of which the priestly 

dynasty of Tanites held | 

sway. She'shonk, called I '_ 

;j Shi'shak in the Bible (I. Kings xiv. 
25), succeeded the priestly line, or 
^' High Priests of Amun," as they 
called themselves, and brought about 
a partial revival of Egyptian glory 
(993 B.C.). 

40. This monarch invaded Judah, 
received the submission of Eeho- 

Cartouche op a King, 

supposed to be Rehoboam.* bo am, and plundered Jerusalem. 

There were afterward several other kings of the i 

same name. The twenty -fifth dynasty was I 

founded by Sa-ba'co, an Ethiopian, who conquered Egypt. 

This is the So of Scripture, who made a treaty with Hoshea 




* In the palace-temple of Karnak, Shlshak is represented in a large bas-relief 
dragging captive kings in triumph. Each country or city is personified, and its 
name written in an oval. One of the figures has an inscription which means 
" Kingdom of Judah." This is the figure represented in the cut. 



50 Ancient History. 



(724 B.C.), and who came in conflict with Sargon, the Assy- 
rian monarch. Tir-ha'kah (or Teh'rak), of this dynasty, was 
the greatest of the Ethiopian kings of Egypt. He con- 
tended successfully with Assyria, and came to the assistance 
of the Jewish king Hezekiah against Sennacherib, who met 
with so terrible an overthrow. He was, however, finally 
defeated, and Egypt was broken up into petty kingdoms sub- 
ject to Assyria. 

41. Psam-met'i-chus threw off the Assyrian yoke, and 
founded the twenty-sixth dynasty. By means of Greek mer- 
cenaries he greatly increased his power, though 
he in this way offended the Egyptian military 



Psammetichus. 



class. He encouraged art and constructed several great works. 

Necho, or Ne-ka'o, his son and successor, gave great attention 
to maritime enterprises. He built fleets on the 
Eed and Mediterranean seas, undertook to re- 



Necho. 



open the canal between the Eed Sea and the Nile which 
had been cut by Rameses II., and also directed the circum- 
navigation of Africa.* After defeating Josiah, king of 
Judah, he was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (605 

B.C.). 

42. Ama'sis, the fifth king of this dynasty, had a long and 
prosperous reign. He constructed many fine buildings, and 
left numerous monuments in different parts of 
the country. He encouraged Greek merchants 



Amasis. 



to settle in Egypt, and in order to protect his kingdom 
against the growing power of Persia, made an alliance with 
Croesus of Lydia. His reign terminated just as Camby'ses, 
the Persian king, was about to invade the coun- 
try. His son and successor, Psam-men'i-tus, after 



Psammenitus. 



a reign of six months, encountered the Persian host near 

* "Necho next fitted out some ships, in order to discover if Africa was circum- 
navigable; for which purpose he engaged the services of certain Phoenician 
mariners; and he has the honor of having been the first to ascertain the peninsular 
form of that continent, about twenty-one centuries before Bartolomeo Diaz and 
Vasco da Gama. "—iJawZmson. 



Egypt. 51 

Pelnsium, and was defeated (525 B.C.). Thus Egypt came 
under the power of Cambyses, who treated the people with 
great cruelty. 

43. During the remaining dynasties, extending over nearly 
two centuries from the battle of Pelusium, Egypt was en- 
gaged in a constant struggle with the Persians 
for its independence, which it often regained, but 
as often lost. In these efforts, it received con- 



Subsequent 
history. 



siderable assistance from the Greeks. Since its final con- 
quest by the Persians (346 B.C.), the prophecy of Ezekiel, 
that ^'^ there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt," 
has been literally fulfilled, for not one native ruler has ever 
occupied the throne for a period of more than 2000 years. 
The subsequent history of this country will, therefore, be 
given in connection with that of the nations to whom it has 
successively belonged. 

Egyptian Topography and Civilization. 

44. Egypt, far back in the early ages, became a populous 
country, because of its extraordinary fertility, due to the 
annual inundations of the Nile, caused by the 
rains that fall on the equatorial highlands. In 



Soil. 



Productions. 



fact, this region may be geographically described as the valley 
of that river; and by some it has been called the ^^gift of the 
Nile." Its most ancient name was Ohemi {ha' me), the 
Black Country, on account of the character of the soil. It 
yielded in great abundance immense crops of 
dlioiuna, a kind of maize, and other cereals; and 
thus the granaries of Egypt were able to supply food to all the 
surrounding nations in times of famine. The date-palm grew 
spontaneously. The Egyptian portion of the valley extended 
about five hundred miles from north to south, being bounded 
on the west by a rocky ridge sloping into the Great Desert, 
and on the east by low ranges descending to the Red Sea. 
45. It was anciently divided into Upper, Middle, and 



6^ 



Ancient History, 



Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, or the Tlieb'a-is, as it was often 
called, included the narrow valley in the extreme 
southern part. Its capital was Thebes, which, in 



Divisions. 



the time of its splendor, is said to have covered twenty-three 
miles, and to have had one hundred gates. On 
its site are the villages of Luxor and Karnak, 



Upper Egypt. 



where the ruins of splendid temples, colossal statues, obelisks. 




Memnonian Statues, near Thebes. 

and sphinxes still bear witness to the grandeur of this famous 
city. Near Thebes are the two colossal sitting figures, one 
of which is known as the statue of Memnon, which is said 
to have emitted a musical sound at the rising of the sun.* 
Originally, there was an avenue of eighteen such statues. 

* The height of each of these statues is forty -seven feet, and they I'est on pedes- 
tals about twelve feet high. The vocal Memnon is the statue of an Egyptian king 
(Amen'ophis). The sound emitted by this figure is said to have resembled the tvrang- 
ing of a harp-string. These statues were constructed moi-e than 3000 years ago. 



Egypt, m 

The most flourishing period of Thebes was during the eight- 
eenth dynasty. It was pilhiged by Cambyses, who carried off 
from it an immense treasure. 

46. Middle Egypt, or Heptan'omis, as it was called on 
account of its seven districts, embraced the wider portion of 
the Nile basin below the Thebais. Its capital was 
Memphis, the city of the Pharaohs who received 



Middle Egypt. 



and protected the Israelites. This district contains the finest 
of the pyramids, which are situated on the west side of the 
Nile, extending a distance of about seventy miles. The first, 
or Great Pyramid, at Gizeh ( glie'za), is the most remarkable. 
It is said that 100,000 men were employed during 
thirty years in its construction. Lower Egypt, 



Lower Egypt. 



which consisted of the Delta of the Nile, was very fertile and 
populous. Sais was its chief city. [See Map, page 47.] 

47. The power of the Pharaoh, or king, was absolute, 
except that he was more or less under the influence of the 
priests; and, at some periods of the history, was 
completely under their control.* Women were 
not entirely debarred from occupying the throne. 



Political 
system. 



nor even from the priesthood. The nation was divided into 
nomeSf each of which had its governor {^lomarch). The peo- 
ple consisted of many classes, but there was no fixed 
caste, as has been supposed, f Many occupations 



Social system. 



were hereditary; but the educational system was such that 
any one could by superior talent rise to eminence. Still the 
evils of class distinction were almost equal to those of caste. 
Shepherds and herdsmen, particularly swineherds, were held 
in great abomination. All handicrafts were despised by the 
upper classes, whose occupations were priestly, civil, or mili- 
tary, or such as required scientific knowledge. Even sculp- 

*The growing influence of the priests, as Rawlinson remarks, was shown 
especially in the accession to power of the priestly dynasty of Tanites. These 
styled themselves "High Priests of Amman," and wore priestly costume. 

t " Castes, in the strict sense of the word, did not exist in Egypt, since a son was 
not absolutely compelled to follow his father's protession."— Rawlinson. 



64 Ancient Misior^y. 



ture and painting were degraded arts. There were many 
slaves, who were generally captives taken in war. 

48. The religion of the Egyptians, which was probably at 
first a simple worship of one God, became very complex, 
owing to the vast number of deities which were 
adopted into their system. Many of these were. 



Religion. 



doubtless, personified attributes of the Deity; but others were 
regarded as distinct personages, such as Osiris and Isis. The 
veneration in which many of the lower animals were held was 
a curious feature of this religion. Thus the ibis, the hawk, 
the dog, and the cat were considered sacred; and at Memphis 
the bull Apis, regarded as a symbol of Osiris, was a special 
object of adoration. To kill one of these sacred animals, even 
by accident, was to incur the penalty of death. In the 
temples certain mysteries, or secret ceremonies, were per- 
formed, to which the jiriests alone were admitted. 

49. The worship was either public or private, the former 
in the temples, the latter at the tombs. Every town had at 
least one temple dedicated to the chief divinity 
of the place, where were the images which sym- 



Worship. 



bolized his powers, and the sacred animal which he was sup- 
posed to animate. The religious services were only in part 
open to the common people. The worship at the tombs was 
designed to secure certain benefits for the deceased in the 
future state. Every tomb of the wealthy had a chapel for 
this purpose, but all passers-by were invited to enter and par- 
ticipate in the ceremonies, and to offer up prayers for the 
souls of the departed. The sacrifices to the gods consisted 
of animals and vegetables, with libations of wine and the 
burning of incense. 

60. The funeral was the greatest of all the social ceremo- 
nies of the Egyptians. The period of mourning sometimes 
lasted seventy-two days, during which the procesf 
of embalming was performed. The body wm 



Funeral. 



swathed in many linen bandages, and the mummy thus formed 



l^mjpi- 



m 



was covered with pasteboard, and often inclosed in a box, some- 
times in a stone sarcophagus. It was then taken to the tomb, 
and offerings to the deceased were placed in the chapel.* The 
Booh of the Dead, containing 
the funeral ritual of tlie ancient 
Egyptians, is still in existence. 
This great care to preserve the 
body from decay was due to the 
belief that the soul would, after 
a long period, return to reani- 
mate it. It is believed that 
some of the pyramids Avere, for 
this reason,, constructed by the 
kings in order to afford durable 
protection to their mortal re- 
mains. Imprisonment for debt 
was not permitted; but a man 
could pledge to his creditors 
the mummies of his ancestors, 
and if he failed in his lifetime to redeem them, he Avas him- 
self deprived of burial. 

51. The Egyptians made great progress in the mechanical 
and industrial arts. The weaving of cotton and i 

T 1/1 !•• Ti TjT Industrial arts. 

linen cloth, workmg m copper and brass, and the 

making of glass and pottery were among the most prominent 
branches of manufacture. In their agriculture the people 
showed very great skill. A considerable traffic was 
carried on with other countries; gold, ivory, ebony. 




Mummies. 



Commerce. 



skins, and slaves were brought from Ethiopia, incense from 
Arabia, and spices from India. In exchange for these articles 



*The bodies of the poor were first salted, and then boiled in bitumen. Vast 
numbers of sacred animals, bulls, apes, dogs, cats, sheep, etc., were also embalmed. 
It has been estimated that more than 400,000,000 human mummies were made in 
Egypt. Sepulchres have been opened in which thousands of them were found 
deposited in rows, one on another, without coffins. Shiploads have been trans 
ported to England, and ground up for use in fertilizing the soil. 



56 



Ai\cient History. 



grain and cloth were the chief exports. This commerce was 
carried on principally by Greek and Phoenician merchants, 
since the Egyptians had not attained any great degree of 
skill in ship-building or navigation. 

62. Egyptian art was intended to illustrate the religious 
belief of the people. Hence it was characterized by grandeur 
rather than beauty. Their peculiar taste seems 
to have been the outgrowth of their religious 
the design was 



Fine arts. 



ideas, for 

rather to awaken awe than 
to please the eye with ele- 
gant and graceful forms. 
This prevented any pro- 
gress in art, for all inven- 
tive genius was trammeled 
by their strict conventional 
rules based upon their re- 
ligious principles. Colos- 
sal statues, symbolical un- 
couth figures, and animals 
of strange ideal forms took 
the place of that which 
is natural and beautiful. 
The temples and sepulchers 
were adorned 
with paintings, 
executed in strong but not 
glaring colors, in the pecu- 
liar Egyptian conventional 
style; that is, the style in which natural variety of form is 
sacrificed to an ideal sameness. The pigments 
used were very durable and often brilliant. Music 
was highly cultivated, and the instruments were 
considerable variety and ingenuity. Dancing was also 



Painting. 




The Obelisk, now in the Central Park, 
York, as it stood in Alexandria. 



New 



Music and 
dancing. 



of 



cultivated as an art. 



Egypt, 57 

53. Architecture was the greatest of the Egyptian arts. 
Massiveness and grandeur were the prominent features. 
This people delighted in pyramids, obelisks,* and 
stupendous temples, with immense columns and 



Architecture. 



spacious halls, adorned with colossal statues, avenues of 
sphinxes, and elaborate sculpture, all producing an awe-in- 
spiring effect. The huge blocks of stone used in these struc- 
tures were drawn hundreds of miles from the quarries, by the 
united labor of thousands of men. The pyramids 
are the most celebrated of these structures. There 



The pyramids. 



are as many as seventy standing on the left bank of the Nile, 
but the Great Pyramid at G-izeh is the most famous. 

64. This massive stone structure, standing near the apex 
of the Delta, is believed to be the largest and oldest building 
now in existence. Its original height was 480 
feet, and its base 764 feet square, covering an 



Great Pyramid. 



area of more than 13 acres; but by the removal of the casing- 
stones for the building of Cairo, its height was reduced about 
30 feet. Like all the other pyramids, it faces the cardinal 
points, and is built on strictly scientific and mathematical prin- 
ciples; while in its form, position, chambers, and passages, it is 
sup230sed to symbolize many important truths. Its entrance 
passage is about four feet high, leading downward to a sub- 
terranean chamber cut out of the solid rock. The upward 



* The name obelisk (meaning in Greek a spit) was given to these tall and slender 
monoliths on account of their peculiar shape. They were erected in pairs at the 
gateways of temples, one standing on each side. They were taken from the 
quarries of Syene, and floated down the Nile on rafts, at the time of the inundation. 
Their form was dictated by a certain law of proportion ; and their height varied 
from a little over 20 feet to 12.3 feet. On their sides were carved hieroglyphic 
records of the names and titles of the kings by whom they were erected. The one 
recently removed fi'om Egypt to New York was originally placed at the gate of the 
temple of the sun, erected at Heliopolis by Thothmes III., where it stood for 
eighteen centuries, having been transported to Alexandria by the Romans in the 
time of Augustus. Its companion was removed with it, and at Alexandria was 
known as Cleopatra's Needle. This obelisk was removed to London a few years 
ago. An obelisk was removed from Luxor to Paris, and set up in the Place de la 
Concorde, in 183-3. Several previously had been transported to Rome. 



58 



Ancient History. 



passage leads to what is called the Grand Gallery, 28 feet 
high and about 157 feet long, and thence to the highest and 
largest known room in the structure, called the King's Cham- 
ber, which contains a granite coffer, the only article of furni- 
ture in the pyramid. Below the King's Chamber is the 
Queen's Chamber, reached by a horizontal passage from the 
foot of the Grand Gallery. According to Herodotus, it was 
built by a king named Cheops {ke'ops), called also Shufu or Su- 
phis; and the date of its erection was probably about 2400 b. c. * 
55. The Great Sphinx, an immense sculptured figure of a 
fabulous monster, having the head of a man and the body of 
a lion, stands a short distance from the pyramids 
of Gizeh, with its head facing the Nile. It is sup- 
posed to be even older than the Great Pyramid. Its dimensions 



Great Sphinx. 



are enormous, the length of the body being 146 feet, and the 
distance across the .shoulders 36 feet. Between the paws, 
which are 50 feet apart, a small temple was constructed. This 
colossal figure was intended to represent one of the Egyptian 
deities, Horns, the Sun-god, as named in the hieroglyphics. 



* No opening was discovered in this wonderful building till about 825 a.d., when, 
by order of a Saracen monarch, the Mohammedans broke into it, making an 

irregular passage (10); but in doing 
this they discovered the passage (2) 
made by the builders, the opening 
to which was carefully concealed 
from without. The diagram shows 
the subterranean chamber (3), the 
ascending passage (4), the horizon- 
tal passage (5), the queen's cham- 
ber (G), the grand gallery (7), the 
king's chamber (8), the passage 
leading to the subterranean cham- 
ber (9), and the chambers of con- 
struction (11) over the king's cham- 
ber; also ventilating tubes to the 
north and south. At the time of the Saracenic invasion this building was still per- 
fect, and covered with hieroglyphics sufficient, as an Arab writer calculated, to fill 
10,000 volumes. The Mohammedans took enough stone away to build all the 
mosques and palaces of Cairo. It originally contained nearly 7,000,000 tons of 
masonry, or 85 millions of cubic feet of cut stone. This would furnish enough 
material to construct a railway embankment 10}^ feet high and 240 miles in length. 




Egypt. 69 



66. The Egyptians made great progress in many of the 
sciences. Tlieir knowledge of astronomy was quite exten- 
sive, as is shown by the observations they made, 
and their mode of reckoning time; while their 



Science. 



Useful arts. 



Language and 
literature. 



achievements in architecture prove that they had consider- 
able knowledge of mathematical and mechanical science. 
They were also versed in medicine and surgery. They 
possessed great skill in many of the useful arts, 
including pottery, the manufacture of glass and 
porcelain, dyeing, and the making of linen. They were like- 
wise skilled in the polishing and engraving of precious stones, 
and in metallurgy. 

57. The language of the ancient Egyptians was related 
to the Semitic, but differed from it in many respects. Its 
modern form is the Coptic. In ancient times 
there were different dialects in upper and lower 
Egypt. Hieroglyphics were used for monumental 
writing, from which a kind of running hand was formed, 
used for documents written on papyrus; and besides these 
there was the demotic, or common writing. Tiie mode of 
writing was with a reed, the hieroglyphs being traced in 
black; but the paragraphs Avere commenced in red. The 
sculptured hieroglyphs were also embellished with colors. 
Much of the ancient literature has come down to us, but is 
generally disconnected and of little value. The discovery of 
the famous ^^Rosetta Stone" led to the deciphering of the 
hieroglyphic inscriptions, by means of which a flood of light 
has been thrown upon ancient Egyptian history.* 

* " All three forms of hieroglyphic writing were alike unintelligible to the Greek 
travelers in Egypt, but they had the priests for interpreters. This key lost, the 
treasures of Egyptian learning— 'a library of stones and papyri in myriads of 
volumes '—appeared to be sealed forever, till, early in the 19th century, the key 
was found by Dr. Young, and successfully applied by M. Champollion. The 
discovery was first made from the 'Rosetta Stone.' one of the gatherings of 
Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, and now in the British Museum. It is a piece of 
black basalt, engraved with a trilingual inscription in honor of King Ptolemy V., 
Epiphanes, about the beginning of the second century b.c. The same text is 
repeated, first in hieroglyphics, secondly in enchorial [demotic] characters, lastly iu 



60 Ancient History. 



58. The pictures on the monuments and tombs give us a 
fair representation of the everj-day life of these remarkable 
people. At their feasts, which were numerous 
among the rich, the host and hostess presided. 



The seats were single or double chairs, but many sat on the 
gi'ound. The servants decked the guests with lotus flowers, 
and piled meat, fruits, cakes, and other food on small tables 
placed before them; while hired musicians and dancers enter- 
tained the company. ThQy had several games, among which 
was a kind of draughts or chess. The rich rode in chariots, 
or in heavy carriages drawn by oxen. Women were treated 
with respect, and enjoyed a greater degree of freedom than 
in many of the Asiatic civilizations. 

The Ethiopians. 

59. Directly south of Egypt lay the country of the 
Ethiopians, a nation the origin of which is lost in antiquity. 
Its capital, Mer'o-e, on account of its favorable 
situation on the upper Nile, became the emporium 



Meroe. 



of Arabia, Egypt, and other nations in -its vicinity; and 
Ethiopia grew to be one of the most powerful states of the 
ancient world (about 1000 B.C.). For a time it was tributary 
to Egypt; but (about 750 B.C.) it acquired its independence, 
under Sab'a-co, and in its turn subdued Egypt, which it kept 
under its sway about sixty years. 

Greek; but the stone is so mutilated at the corners and one edge, that the first part 
of the hieroglyphic text and the last part of the Greek are lost, as well as the begin- 
ning of several lines of the enchorial. The first comparison made was that of certain 
names and titles, which occur frequently in the Greek text, with groups of charac- 
ters similarly repeated in the corresponding parts of the enchorial. Conspicuous 
among these was the name of Ftolemij, Avhich Dr. Young next found in the hiero- 
glyphic text, guided by a suggestion, previously made, that the oval rings, or 
cartouches, constantly seeti in hieroglyphic inscriptions, formed the inclosure of 
royal names. Hence he determined the phonetic or alphabetic value of the charac- 
ters which he supposed to spell Ptolemaios, or Ptolemeos, and then those of 
Berenice. In 1822 the publication of the bilingual inscription on the obelisk at 
Philae enabled ChampoUion to decipher the name of Cleopatra. The subsequent 
discovery of many other Greek and Roman names led him on to the deciphering 
of the letters of common words.''— Smith's Ancient History of the East. 



The Phoenicians. 61 



60. During the reign of Psammetichus, 240,000 Egyptians 
emigrated to Ethiopia, and settling there added greatly to the 
prosperity of the state. After subduing Egypt, 
Cambyses invaded Etliioi)ia ; but his soldiers 
suffered terrible hardships from famine in the 



Invasions of 
Cambyses. 



deserts before they reached Meroe, after the capture of which 
he was obliged to abandon his hopes of further conquest and 
return to Egypt. About five centuries later, Ethiopia was 
conquered by the Komans. 



SECTION V. 
The Phcenicians. 



61. Phoenicia, bordering on the eastern shore of the Medi- 
terranean Sea, is particularly noted for its two great cities, 
Sidon and Tyre, the most ancient seats of com- 
merce mentioned in history. Each had a govern- 



Sidon and Tyre. 



ment of its own, and each sent colonies to different parts of 
the world. The most ancient were Ga'des (now Cadiz), in 
Spain (Tarshish), and Utica, in Africa. Some 
of the earliest settlements in Greece are said to 



Colonies. 



have been made by Phoenicians. The greatest of their colo- 
nies was Car'thage, on the northern coast of Africa, founded 
by Dido, a Tyrian princess (878 B.C.). Ar'a-dus was also an 
important city of Phoenicia. 

62. Phoenicia was, in fact, a confederacy of states, or large 
and powerful cities, of which Sidon was the most ancient, 
and for some time the most flourishing; but her 
defeat by the Philistines of Ascalon gave the pre- 



Sidon and Tyre. 



cedency to Tyre (about 1050 B.C.). This city, like the others 
in Phoenicia, was under the rule of kings, but the priesthood 
and the aristocracy had great influence. The list of the 



62 



Ancient History. 



Tyrian kings from 1050 to 830 B.C. is known to us. About 
the close of that period, the country was invaded by the 
Assyrians, and lost its independence. After the fall of 
that empire, Phoenicia was brought under the power of the 

Egyptians (608 B.C.), 




s^Ezion-geI)er V 

]MED SEA. . 



PHCENICIA 

-<^^ AND 

PALESTINE 

ivrnes 

6 3o 40 60 



and three years after- 
ward was conquered 
by Nebuchadnezzar. 

63. Tyre revolted 
from him eight years 
later, and maintained 
a successful resistance 
for thirteen years, 
when she was again 
brought under the 
Babylonian yoke, and 
so remained till both 
Tyre and Sidon were 
reduced by Cyrus (538 
B.C.). Having revolt- 
ed from the Persians 
(in 351 B.C.), Sidon 
was fired by its own 
inhabitants and en- 
tirely destroyed. It 
was, however, rebuilt. 
Both cities were taken 
by Alexander the 
Great (in 332 B.C.), 



Geographical Study. 
What ivas the situation of: Phcenicia? Syrian 
JuDAH? Israel? Edom? Moab? Gilead? Galilee 5 
Tyre? Sidon? Aradiis? Jerusalem? Damascus? Sama- ^yre yielding to the 
ria? Askelon? Gaza^' Ashdod? Joppa? Beer-sheba? <., -, 

Byblus? Tadmor? Ezion-geber? Dead Sea? Jordan COnqUCror alter a QC- 
River? Orontes River? What name has been given to iermincd resistance of 
the whole district west of the Jordan? ^71 s. Pales- mnntVisi 

tine, or the Holy Land. ^^^®" monLUb. 

64. The Phrenicians were the greatest navigators and mer- 
chants of antiquity. Keeping near the shore, and guided by 



The Fhcenicians. 



m 



the stars, their ships visited the most remote parts of the 
Mediterranean Sea, and even passed the "Pillars of Hercules" 
(Strait of Gibniltar) into the Atlantic, probably 
reaching the ''Land of Tin" — the peninsula of 
Cornwall, in Britain ; also the Canaries, the 



Navigation and 
commerce. 



Azores, and the Madeira Islands in the west, and India and 
Ceylon in the east. Wherever trade was profitable they ex- 
tended their voyages, and they were careful to conceal from all 
others the course they took to the wealthy lands they reached. 
When Herodotus visited Tyre, he could gain no information 
of the source of their supply of tin and amber, although they 
had been selling those products to the Greeks for centuries.* 




Phcenician Ship. 



In their desire for gain the Phoenicians did not at times 
scruple to commit piracy; and they sometimes, it is s^id, 
kidnapped Greek and Hebrew children and sold them for 
slaves. Many of the great commercial centers on the shores 
of the Mediterranean grew from Phoenician settlements. 
Thus it will be seen that the Phoenicians were masters of the 
commerce of the world before the Greeks became at all promi- 
nent on the field of history. 

65. Their manufactures of glass and linen, of perfumes and 
purple dye, were sources of unbounded wealth ; and the 
Phoenicians were universally considered to be the most skillful 

*It is related that the master of one of their merchantmen bound for the 
" Land of Tin," perceiving himself followed by a Roman ship, which had been sent 
to learn the way, ran his vessel on the rocks to lead the rival craft to destruction, 
and on his return home his government indemnified him for the loss. 



64 



Ancient History. 



workmen in gold, silver, ivory, and bronze. These manu- 
factured articles they exchanged for the rich 
products of distant lands. From the natives of 



Manufactures. 



Tarshish (southern Spain) they obtained gold, silver, iron, 
and lead ; for this country at that time was almost a mine 
of wealth, silver being so plentiful that the mer- 
chants, as Aristotle relates, ballasted their ships 



with it. For these treasures the simple natives eagerly ac- 
cepted Tyrian ornaments and glass trinkets. On the southern 
shores of the Baltic a similar traffic was carried on for the 
precious amber of that region. 

66. These people also made great progress in literature. 
Their alphabet was more complete than any that previously 

existed, for it was ^jJionetic; that is, it represented 

the elementary sounds of spoken words, not pic- 
tures of objects. It is stated 
that Cadmus, a Phoenician, 
brought sixteen letters into 
Greece, thus forming a basis 

for the Greek 

alphabet. How- 



Alphabet. 




ever this may be, it is cer- 
tain that not only the Greek 
but all our modern alpha- 
bets are directly or indirectly 
based upon that of the Phoe- 
nicians. Thus, whatever the 
origin of these wonderful 
people, for it is impossible 
to say whence they came, they must be considered among 
the most enterprising, ingenious, and intellectual nations of 
antiquity. 

67. The Phoenicians worshiped a vast multitude of gods, 
among whom Ba'al was pre-eminent, corresponding to the 
Babylonian deity of that name; and next to him was a female 



Head of Baal. 
(From a Tyrian Coin.) 



The Phoenicians. Q>5 



deity named As-tar'te, whose emblem was the moon. The 
evil principle was personified by the dreaded being Moloch, 
to whom they sometimes sacrificed their children and other 
human beings. They erected temples, but chiefly 
selected for their places of worship mountains, 



Religion. 



glens, groves, and the banks of streams, which they deemed 
the favorite abodes of the gods. Fire was kept burning 
perpetually on their altars, and they sacrificed both men and 
animals. Many of their religious rites and ceremonieS^ were 
dreadfully cruel and degi^ading, 

Syria. 

68. Syria is the name given to a region of indefinite 
extent situated to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. By the 
Hebrews it was called A'ram. It was united 
under one government till the time of its com- 



Situation. 



plete conquest by the Persians. There were several states, 
but the one most generally known was Syria of Damascus, 
which was an important state even in the times 
of Abraham. In the subsequent history of the 



Damascus. 



Jews it became quite prominent. King David gained a great 
victory over the Syrians of Damascus, and reduced their city; 
but during Solomon's reign it regained its independence 
(1000 B.C.), 

69. There were three kings named Ben-ha'dad, all of 
whom contended repeatedly with the Hebrews. Benhadad 
II. was murdered by the usurper Haz'a-el, who 
afterward gained important victories over the 



Benhadad. 



Israelites, ravaged their territory, and plundered Jerusalem 
(about 850 B.C.). His son, Benhadad III., also "oppressed 
Israel." At a later j^eriod, Syria was successively subdued by 
the Assyrians, Persians, and Macedonians. About 63 B.C., it 
became a Roman province, and was subsequently divided into 
several provinces. 



66 Ancient History. 



SECTION VI. 

The Hebrews. 

70. Palestine was situated between the Mediterranean Sea 
and the yalley of the Jordan Eiver, extending about 145, 
miles from north to south, with an average 
breadth of less than fifty miles. The name is 



a corruption of Philistia, or the country of the Philistines, 
those fierce idolaters with whom the Hebrews waged many 
wars. Their chief cities were Ash'dod, or A-zo'- 
tus, As'ca-lon, Gath, Ga'za, and Ek'ron, all noted 



Philistine 



in sacred history. The western parts of what was called 
Palestine were inhabited by the Canaanites and 
other tribes, or nations {seven mentioned in the 



Canaanites. 



Scriptures), which were conquered by the Hebrews. 

71. The Hebrews were a Semitic race. Abraham jour- 
neyed from Chaldea to Canaan (Palestine), where his de- 
scendants continued to dwell as a patriarclial and pastoral 
nation until Jacob and his sons left the country to settle in 
Egypt. The Jewish state properly commences with the Exodus 
from Egypt and the settlement again in Palestine. Of the twelve 
tribes of Israel, nine and a half were located to 
the west, and two and a half to the east, of the 



Tribes of Israel. 



Jordan. Into this region they had been led by Joshua, as 
Moses was permitted only to catch a glimpse of the promised 
land. After the death of Joshua followed the period of the 
Judges, which lasted about five centuries. The last of the 
Judges was Samuel, who, when the people demanded a king, 
anointed Saul (1095 B.C.). 

72. Saul was succeeded by David, during whose reign 
(from 1055 to 1015 B.C.) the kingdom of Israel stretched 

\ 1 from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates 

I Eiver, and from Syria to the Eed Sea. He en- 
couraged navigation and trade, particularly with Tyre, which 



The Hebrews, 67 



led to a vast influx of the precious metals into the kingdom, 
and afterward made Solomon's court a scene of oriental 
luxury and magnificence. The reign of Solomon (1015-975 
B.C.) was the most splendid period in Jewish 
history. He built a sumptuous palace, and caused 



Solomon. 



the great temple to be constructed. Alliances were formed 
with the surrounding nations ; an active trade with Egypt 
was opened; and, to facilitate his commercial enterprises, he 
erected Tad'mor in the desert, which afterwards became so 
renowned as Palmy'ra. He also built a superb navy at a 
port (E'zi-on - ge'ber) which he established at the northern 
part of the Red Sea. [See map, page 56.] 

73. The glory of Solomon's splendid kingdom was not to 
continue. Already, during his life, luxury had brought its 
usual corruption and weakness. The purity of religion was 
stained by cruel and licentious rites; the people 
were oppressed by a burdensome taxation ; and 
dissension and discontent prevailed. The tyranny 



Revolt of the 
Ten Tribes. 



and insolence of Re-ho-bo'am, Solomon's son and successor, 
completed the ruin of tlie kingdom, causing the revolt of the 
ten tribes, who followed Jer-o-bo'am, and set up a new king- 
dom of Israel at She'chem. To Rehoboam were thus left 
only two tribes, forming the kingdom of Judah. A desultory 
war was kept up between these two kingdoms during most of 
the reign of Jeroboam, which lasted twenty-two years. 

74. The territory ruled over by Jeroboam was partly be- 
yond the Jordan. It reached from the borders of Damascus 
to within ten miles from Jerusalem; and in its 
first period contained twice as large a population 



as Judah. Its first capital was She'chem; the second, Tirzah; 
and the last, Samaria. In about 250 years nineteen monarchs 
reigned, the history of wliom is but a sad record of wicked- 
ness and war. They deserted the purity of the former 
religious 'worship, and practiced idolatry, against which the 
prophets vainly denounced the judgments of Heaven. The 



68 



Ancient History, 



kingdom was destroyed by the Assyrians, to wliom the last 
king, Ho-she'a, surrendered Samaria, and the ten tribes were 
carried into captivity (721 B.C.). Their place was supplied 
by Babylonian settlers, from whom, with the remnant of the 
Jewish population, was derived the Samaritan race. 

75. The kingdom of Judah lasted 135 years longer than 
Israel. Most of its kings were wicked and idolatrous; but, 

1 during the reign of the good king Je-hosh'a-i^hat 

I (916-892 B.C.), the kingdom was in a more pros- 
perous state than it had been since the reign of Solomon. 



Hezekiah's reign (726-697 B.c) is remarkable for the invasion 
_ of Sennacherib and the mir- 

aculous destruction of his 
army. The last king was 
Zed-e-ki'ah, during whose 
reign Nebuchadnezzar, king 
of Babylon, took Jerusalem 
and destroyed it, sending 
the Jewish king in chains 
to Babylon, whither were 
also transported tlie wretch- 
ed inhabitants (586 B.C.). 
The temple was razed to 
ANTIQUE VESSEI.S. ^jjg ground, and for more 

than fifty years the holy city perished, except in the memory 
of the heart-broken exiles. The restoration of the Jews took 
place in 536 B.C., in pursuance of an edict of Cyrus, the great 
Persian monarch, which permitted the Jewish people in Baby- 
lon to return to Jerusalem, and to rebuild the temple, every 
Jew in the city being enjoined by the edict to assist in the 
work. 

76. After the edict of Cyrus, the Jews remained under the 
dominion of Persia till the time of Alexander; and on his death 
(324 B.C.), they became subject to Ptol'e-my {toVe-me), one of his 
successors. Subsequently the kings of Egypt and Syria con- 




The Hebrews. 



Subsequent 
Jewish history. 



tended for Palestine, until An-ti'o-chus the Great defeated the 
Egyi)tians, and thus became its ruler. In conse- 
quence of the oppression of one of his successors, 
the Jews revolted, under the renowned Judas 
Mac-ca-be'us, who in a succession of victories routed the 
Syrian armies, and entered Jerusalem in triumph (1G5 B.C.). 

77. After his death (IGl B.C.), his brothers completed the 
work of national deliverance, and they and their successors 
ruled as high-priests, until 
Aristobu'lus assumed the 
crown (lOG B.C.). The 
second king of that name 
was subdued by Pompey, 
the Roman general, when 
Judea became a Roman 
province. The successors of 
Judas Maccabeus are called 
the Maccabees, or the As- 
mo-ne'an dynasty. These 
were followed by the dy- 
nasty founded by Herod the 
Great, who ruled under the Romans (37 B.C.-44 A.D.). Sub- 
sequently Judea was appended to the Roman province Syria. 
The revolt of the Jews led to a ''war of independence," 
which was closed by the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 
(70 A.D.) and the final dispersion of the Hebrew race. 

78. The civilization of the Hebrews was not marked by 
any great and peculiar progress in the arts and sciences; and 
the world has received no impulse from their 
national achievements or history in this respect. 
Their religious institutions, spiritual ideas, and 




Hebrew Costume. 



Hebrew 
civilization. 



moral teachings have, however, exerted a mighty influence 
on modern civilization. The sacred writings of the Jews are 
still a treasury of inspired wisdom, the influence of which 
pervades the most civilized nations of the globe. 



'70 Anclerd History. 

SECTION VII. 
The Hindoos. 

79. The original seat of the great Aryan race appears to 
have been the region lying between the northwestern boun- 
dary of India and the shores of the Caspian Sea. 
[See map No. II.] From this country emigrants 



Aryans. 



pushed across the Indus River, and drove toward the south or 
reduced to servitude the native inhabitants. Of these Aryan 
invaders, mingling with the darker races whom they had sub- 
dued, the Hindoos are the descendants. The land was subse- 
quently called Ar'ya-d-var'ta, or the Home of the Aryans. 
The date of this invasion is uncertain, but it has been placed 
by some Sanskrit scholars as far back as 3100 B.C. 

80. These invaders brought with them a religion called 
Brahmanism and the Sanskrit hmguage, and also established 
the institution of caste. Of these castes the Brah- 
mans or priests, constituted the highest, and the 
Sii'dras, or conquered people — the artisans and laborers — the 
lowest. To these may be also added the Pa'rialis, or outcasts. 
The Sanskrit is now a dead language, but a com- 
parison of it with other languages shows it to have 



Castes. 



Sanskrit. 



been the parent of Greek, Latin, Iranian or Persian, German, 
Celtic, Slavonic, and most of the languages of modern Europe. 
The Vedas, or sacred books, written in this lan- 
guage, are believed to be as old as 2000 b. c. The 



ancient literature of the Hindoos includes many other inter- 
esting works, both in prose and poetry, a number of which have 
been translated into English and other modern languages. 

81. The Vedas teach the worship of one Supreme Being, 
an Infinite Spirit, pervading all things, and manifesting 
himself under three forms: Brahma, the creator; 
Vishnu, the preserver; and Siva, the destroyer. 



Religion. 



The doctrine of the *' transmigration of souls" was a promi- 



The Hindoos. 71 



nent feature in these religious teachings. According to -this 
belief, the souls of all those who had not lived pure lives 
passed at death into the bodies of lower animals as a punish- 
ment. In the sixth century B.C., there arose a wonderful 
religious reformer or teacher in the person of Prince Gau- 
ta'ma, called Buddha (hoocV ilali) — the Enlightened, i \ 
He was the founder of Buddhism, a religious I L_ 



system which at first was pure and spiritual, but subsequently 
became stained with many abuses and corrupted with idolatry 
and superstitious practices. It is now the religion of a large 
part of mankind.* 

82. We have no continuous authentic history of the 
ancient Hindoos. The first event in connection with the 
history of Europe that brings India into notice 
is the invasion of the country by the Macedoni- 



ans, under their great leader, Alexander the Great (326 B.C.). 
After several engagements with the native princes, he was 
compelled to retire Avithout making any conquests. The his- 
torians who accompanied the army wrote quite a full descrip- 
tion of the people and their peculiarities. 

83. The wealth of India — its diamonds and other precious 
stones, pearls, silks, spices, and perfumes — made this land 
for many centuries an object of interest, and 
trade with it was eagerly cultivated. Maritime 
commerce with India was carried on by the 



Wealth and 
trade. 



Phoenicians, as it was afterward by the Italian commercial 
states. A great overland trade was also carried on not only 
by the Phoenicians but by other nations. In all other 
respects, however, the country and its people remained a 
sealed book for ages. 

* " In point of age, most other creeds are youthful compared with this venerable 
religion, which has in it the eternity of a universal hope, the immortality of a 
boundless love, an indestructible element of faith in final good, and the proudest 
assertion ever made of human freedom."— JJdifZH Arnold. 



72 Ancient History. 



SECTION yiii. 
The Chinese. 

84. China is spoken of by the ancient classic writers as 
the land of the Se'res. In the Middle Ages it was called the 
empire of Cathay'. From others it received the 
name of Sin, Cliin, or CMna. The latter name 



China. 



is supposed by some to be derived from the Tsin dynasty, of 
the third century B.C. In the ancient descriptions of this 
country, its rich products — raw silk, silk stuffs, fine furs, and 
excellent iron — are especially mentioned. The Greeks and 
Eomans had but a very indefinite knowledge of the Chinese 
and their country. In the Middle Ages, it became better 
known, particularly through the account given by Marco Polo 
of his travels in Cathay. 

85. The Chinese historians extend their records back 
during fabulous periods of hundreds of thousands of years, 
but fail to explain the origin of the race. They 



"^'"' ' describe the first settlers as nomadic emigrants 



from the region near the Caspian Sea, who, however, soon 
devoted themselves to agriculture, cultivating grain and flax, 
and nourishing silkworms. They established centers of 
trade, and began to study science, particularly astronomy. 
They had a kind of hieroglyphic writing. The natives could 
make but little resistance to the ^^black-haired race," so much 
superior to tliemselves in intelligence and vigor, and hence 
were driven into the less habitable parts of the country. 

86. All the early history of the Chinese is very obscure, 
but, about the twenty-fourth century B.C., the 



' mist begins to rise, and we have a continuous 



history of dynasties and kings. In the tenth century, the 
formidable Tartars commenced their incursions, 
and down to modern times continued to harass 



Tartars. 



the empire. In the sixth century (551 B.C.), the wise teacher 



The Chinese. 73 



Confucius WHS born, who devoted his long life to the endeavor 
to instill into the minds of the people pure prin- 
ciples of vii'tue and religion. Not until after his 



Confucius. 



death, however, were his precepts respected; they were then 
erected into a religious system known as Confucianism. 

87. Lao-tse {low-t^d') was contemporary with Confucius, and 
he also founded a religious system, called Taouism, 
which still extensively prevails. A wise and 



Taouism. 



powerful monarch, called in the Chinese history " the first 
universal emperor," in the third century b.c, gained several 
great victories over the Tartars, and to prevent 
their incursions in the future, planned the con- 



Great wall. 



struction of the " Great Wall," but died before it was com- 
pleted (210 B.C.). Buddhism was introduced from India 
about 65 A.D., and now extensively prevails. 

Chinese Civilization. 

88. The character, institutions, and customs of the Chinese 
have undergone but little change since the earliest 
times. They have ever been jealous of foreigners, 
fearful of innovations, and attached to their own 



Manners and 
customs. 



modes in everything. Their government is an absolute 
monarchy; but the emperor is regarded as the 
father of his people, and as being specially the 



Government. 



son of Heaven, and the mediator between Heaven and all who 
belong to the Chinese nation. Prayers and sacrifices for the 
people are offered by him at stated times. The punishments 
inflicted upon criminals are severe and cruel. The patriarchal 
system prevails in social life, obedience to the 
head of the family being sternly enforced. Edu- 



Education. 



cation receives a great deal of attention, and is the passport 
to all offices, to which every one is eligible. 

89. The Chinese language is one of a small class of Asiatic 
languages which are usually described as monosyllaMc. It 
has no alphabet, the characters being chiefly symbols of the 



74 Ancient History. 



objects which they are designed to denote. There are at 
least 30,000 characters in the language, represented to the 
ear by about 500 syllabic sounds. The ancient literature 
embraces the works compiled by Confucius, five 
in number, among which is the Booh of History, 
which treats of a j)criod extending from the 



Language and 
literature. 



twenty-fourth century to 721 B.C. These, with four other 
works, constitute the famous classics, with which every edu- 
cated Chinaman must be familiar. The art of printing was 
known to the Chinese several centuries before it was invented 
in Europe.* 

90. The native religions of the Chinese are those founded 
by Confucius and Lao-tse. The former is rather of a moral 
and philosophical character ; the latter, of a 
spiritual nature. The educated, as a general 



Religion. 



thing, profess Confucianism; the middle and lower orders, 
Taouism or Buddhism. Great toleration in religion prevails. 
The saying is common: ^'Eeligions are many; reason is one; 
we are all brothers." Multitudes of superstitious beliefs and 
ceremonies have disfigured the ancient religions as now pro- 
fessed and practiced by the people. 



SECTION IX. 
The Persians. 



91. The Persians were an Aryan race who migrated to 
the lofty plain of Iran from the region east of the Caspian 
Sea. Achaemenes {a-hem' e-nez) seems to have 
been the founder of the monarchy about a cen- 



Origin. 



tury before the time of Cyrus. There were many tribes, of 
which the Pa-sar'ga-die were the most prominent, forming a 

* The modern literature of China is very extensive. The roj-al Hbrary contains 
at least 100,000 volumes, its catalogue alone filling 122 volumes. 



No. 2. 





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The Persians. 75 



kind of nobility. The Persians, before Cyrus, were subject 
to the Median monarchy; but that ambitious prince being 
kept as a sort of hostage at Ecbatana, and seeing that the 
luxury and effeminacy of the Medes had under- i ■ 

mined their strength, determined to throw off 



the Median yoke. This he accomplished in spite of all the 
efforts which Astyages made to repress the revolt. The con- 
quest of Media by Cyrus and the capture of Astyages opened 
the way for greater changes. 

92. By a Avonderfully rapid series of conquests Cyrus then 
made himself master of Lydia, the Asiatic Greeks, 
Babylon, and the nations of the remoter East — 
Hyrca'nia, Par'thia, Bac'tria, Sog-di-a'na, etc. 



Conquests of 
Cyrus. 



[See map No. II.] Babylon, as already related, fell before his 
conquering arms in 538 B.C. All these countries were sub- 
dued by this extraordinary man in less than thirty 
years (558-529 B.C.). The circumstances of his 



death are variously related. Herodotus says he was killed in 
an expedition against the Massagetae [mas-saj'e-te), a barba- 
rous tribe living east of the Caspian Sea.* He was succeeded 
by his son Camby'ses. 

* The account given by Herodotus is as follows: " Tomyris, queen of the Massa- 
getae, when she found that Cyrus paid no heed to her advice, collected all the forces 
of her kingdom and gave him battle. Of all the combats in which the barbarians 
have engaged among themselves, I reckon this to have been the fiercest. The 
following, as I understand, was the manner of it: First, the two armies stood apart 
and shot their arrows at each other; then, when their quivers were empty, they 
closed and fought hand to hand with lances and daggers ; and thus they continued 
fighting for a length of time, neither choosing to give ground. At length the 
Massagetae prevailed. The greater part of the army of the Persians was destroyed 
and Cj'rus himself fell, after reigning nine-and-twenty years. Search was made 
among the slain, by order of the queen, for the body of Cyrus; and when it was 
found, she took a skin, and, filling it with human blood, she dipped the head of 
Cyrus in the gore, saying, as she thus insulted the corse, ' I live, and have con- 
quered thee in fight; and yet by thee am I ruined, for thou tookest my son vdth 
guile; but thus I make good my threat, and give thee thy fill of blood.' " According 
to Xenophon, Cyrus died peacefully in his bed. Ctesias says he was mortally 
wounded in a battle with Derbices, and died in his camp a short time afterward. 
There seems to be httle reason to doubt that he died in a violent manner, but it is 
uncertain w-hat enemy he was contending against at the time. 



76 Ancient History. 



93. Ciimbyses was a warlike prince, as well as cruel and 
despotic. He caused his brother Smerdis, sometimes called 
Bardius, to be put to death on account of jeal- 
ousy, because Cyrus had left to him the govern- 



Cambyses. 



ment of several important provinces. He compelled the sub- 
mission of Phoenicia and Cyprus, the great naval powers of 
western Asia, and then invaded Africa (525 B.C.). He de- 
feated Psammenitus, took the city of Memphis, conquered the 
Libyan tribes, and planned the conquest of Carthage, but the 
Phoenician soldiers in his army refused to attack their own 
colony. The army which he sent to capture the temple of 
Ammon, situated in an oasis of the desert (Si-wah'), perished 
in a simoom; and the march of his own army against Ethio- 
pia was arrested in the Nubian desert by drought and famine. 
94. On his return to Egypt he found it in a state of 
revolt, to repress which he was guilty of the wildest atrocities, 
compelling the Egyptian king to take poison, 
killing the sacred animals, and otherwise offend- 
ing the religious prejudices of the people. In 



Revolt of 

Egypt. 



the mean time a revolution took place at the Persian capital. 
A Magian personated the murdered Smerdis, 
and seized the throne, being supported by the 



Smerdis. 



Magian order, the most powerful in Persia. Cambyses on 
his way homeward died, some say by suicide, 
others in consequence of a wound which he 
accidentally inflicted upon himself while mount- 



Death of 

Cambyses. 



ing his horse (522 B.C.).* 

95. Smerdis, the impostor, on the discovery of the fraud, 
was quickly deposed by the Persian nobles, who elected Da- 
ri'us I. , called Hys-tas'pes, king. He was the greatest of the 

* ' ' The Magian revolution was religious rather than political. The subject is still 
to some extent obscure ; but it seems certain that Magianism and Zoroastrianism 
were at this time two distinct and opposed systems. The pretender was a Magus, 
born in the eastern part of Persia ; and the object of the revolution was to make 
Magianism the state religion. Its ill success re-established the pure religion of 
Zoroaster. ' ' — Raiclinson. 



The Persians. 77 



Persian monarchs, being both a conqueror and a statesman. 
He speedily put down the lebellions which, on his accession, 
had broken out in all parts, and then perfected the 
organization of the empire, dividing it into twenty 



Darius I. 



provinces, over which he placed governors, or satraps, as they 
were called by the Persians. He made Susa his capital in the 
spring, Ecbatana in summer, and Babylon in the winter. 

96. Several great military expeditions were then under- 
taken. The first was against Avestern India, near the head- 
waters of the Indus, where he made conquest of a rich gold 
tract that added greatly to the revenues of the empire. The 
next was against the barbarous Scythian nations dwelling 
on the vast plains lying north of the Euxine. With an im- 
mense army he crossed the Bos'po-rus by means of a bridge 
of boats, and advanced against these people, who fled at his 
approach. This expedition seems to have been undertaken 
more for the purpose of overawing the people than to make 
conquests, and after ravaging the country he returned to Per- 
sia, leaving a force to subdue Thrace. 

97. The Greek colonies of Asia Minor, provoked by the 
tyranny of the Persians, planned a revolt, and expelled or put 
to death their governors. Sardis, the capital 
of the satrapy, was taken and burned; but the 
rebellious states, after several battles, were com- 



Revolt of the 
Greek 
colonies. 



pelled to surrender, and were punished with great severity. 
Athens, having aided and abetted the insurrection, brought 
upon herself and all Greece the vengeance of the Persian 
despot, who sent two great expeditions to con(|uer the coun- 
try. These were unsuccessful. In the second of them, the 
Persian army, numbering more than 100,000 men, was de- 
feated by the Greeks on the j)lains of Marathon, not far from 
Athens. This was the first signal defeat which the Persians 
had ever encountered. While organizing a third exj^edition, 
on a still larger scale, Darius died (485 B.C.).* 

* " Darius probably died at Susa; but he was buried in the vicinity of Persepolis, 



78 



Ancient History. 



98. Xerxes I. {zerx'ez), the son and successor of Darius, 
renewed the attempt to subdue the Grecian states, and for 
the purpose collected a vast army and fleet; but 
he met with a disastrous defeat both by land 
and sea. After a reign of 



Xerxes I 



J 



Artaxerxes I. 




Persian War-chariot. 



twenty years,* he trans- 
mitted the enterprise to 
his son, Ar-tax-erx'es I., 

who was at 

last compelled 
to make j^eace with the 
Greeks, after the war had 
continued about fifty years 
(449 B.C.). The subse- 
quent history of Persia is 
of little importance, except as it is connected with that of the 

Greeks. The last king was Darius III., called 

Cod-o-man'us, who was subdued by Alexander 
the Great (329 B.C.). Persia then became a part of the Mace- 
donian Empire, having lasted a little over two centuries. 

Civilization of the Persians. 

99. Until after the reign of Cyrus the Great, the Persians 
were a liardy race, of simple manners and great courage in 
war; but they soon became soft and effeminate, 
like the Medes, to whom they were related. 



Darius III. 



Manners. 



They lost their bold hardihood, and sank into a corrupt 

where he had prepared himself an elaborate rock tomb, adorned with sculptures, 
and bearing a long inscription, all of which remain to the present day. The great 
palace of Persepolis was his conception, if not his work, as was the equally 
magnificent structure at Susa, which was the ordinary royal residence from his 
time. He likewise set up the great rock inscription at Behistun, the most remark- 
able of all the Persian monumental remains."— i?a?oZ/riso?i's Ancient History. 

* Xerxes was a licentious and cruel monarch, and from him commenced the 
long course of folly, self-indulgence, and wickedness that disgrace the subsequent 
history of Persia. He was murdered by the captain of his guard and his chamber- 
lain. Xerxes is supposed to have been the Ahasuerus of Esther; as the latter name 
is the Semitic equivalent of the Aryan Khshnyarsha. corrupted into Xerxes. 



TJie Persians. 79 



state, brought about by luxury and sensual indulgence. They 
made but little progress in the industrial arts, 
as they were enabled to obtain from Egypt, 



Arts. 



Assyria, Babylonia, Phoenicia, and India the rich products of 
those countries. 

100. Architecture was, however, cultivated with success; 
and the ruins of their beautiful city, Per-sep'o-lis, still bear 
witness to the progress they had made in that 
art. This city, called in ancient times " The 



Architecture. 



Glory of the East," was adorned in every possible way by the 
great Acha^menian princes. The most prominent features of 
its edifices were lofty and spacious stone platforms, approached 
by magnificent flights of stairs, also elaborate and tasteful 
sculptures and bas-reliefs, and long rows of light and graceful 
columns. The interiors were ornamented with beautiful 
paintings. The royal palace of Persepolis, afterward wantonly 
destroyed by Alexander the Great, was a miracle of magnifi- 
cence, as the ruins of the Great Hall of Xerxes, or Hall of a 
Hundred Columns, still dimly show. The Persians, unlike 
the Egyptians and Assyrians, delighted rather in splendid pal- 
aces and sumptuous tombs than in stately and magnificent 
temples. Ruins of palaces are also found at Pasargadse, which 
was the residence of Cyrus and Cambyses, as Persepolis was the 
capital of Darius and Xerxes. There are similar rums of Susa 
and Ecbatana. 

101. The ancient religion of the people of Iran was, at 
first, a kind of Brahmanism, like that of the Hindoos; but 
after the exodus of the Aryans, who migrated 
to India, a deadly feud arose between the two 



Religion. 



branches of that racCo and the Persians adopted new beliefs 
and ceremonies. Their religion was, however, essentially the 
worship of one Supreme Being, symbolized by the sun and 
by fire; but, in course of time, it became corrupt, 
under the Magi, or fire-priests. Then Zo-ro-as'ter, 



Zoroaster. 



or more properly Za-ra-thus'tra (meaning chief ovhig/i-priest), 



80 Ancient History. 



arose, and taught a purer and simpler doctrine, the worship 
of the Infinite Spirit, under the name of Ahura Maz'da 
(Ormuzd).* This is the religion of the Parsees, and is con- 
tained in the sacred book of the Persians, called Zend-Avesta, f 
In later times, Zoroaster's teachings were perverted into the 
doctrine of Ormuzd, the principle of good, and Ahriman, 
that of evil. Light and fire^ as emblems of the Divinity, are 
held sacred; and in the temples the fires are kept perpetually 
burning. Even the priests approach them with masked faces, 
lest their breath should defile them; and they touch them 
only with consecrated implements. 

102. The chief remains of ancient Persian are the cunei- 
form inscriptions of the Achsemenian princes, discovered in 
the ruins of Persepolis, on the famous rock of 
Behistun, and at other places. A few proper 



Language. 



names, and terms for vessels and garments, have survived in 
the Bible, chiefly in Daniel. The alphabet commonly used 
by the Persians was not cuneiform, but Semitic. The Zend, 
a rich language, agreeing with the Sanskrit of theVedas, 
died out in the third century B. c. The Sliali Nameli {Book of 
Kings), a poem, written by Firdusi (feer-doo'se) in the tenth 
century a.d., contains the history of Persia from the earliest 
times. Much of it is, however, fabulous. J 

* Ahu'ra is the good spirit, as Diva is the evil one. Ahura-Mazda is tlie Good 
Spirit, the Creator. This word was corrupted into Ormuzd. Zoroaster's life is 
shrouded in darkness, very little being known in regard to the period in which he 
lived, or the circumstances of his career as a religious reformer. He was born, it 
is said, in Bactria; and the Persian traditions appear to indicate that he must have 
lived before the Assyrian conquest of Bactria, which took place about 1200 b.c. 
The Zend-Avesta represents him as a being of supernatural character, endowed 
with divine powers and intelligence, holding intercourse with the Deity, and 
receiving from him the moral and spiritual truths which he taught to mankind. 

t Zend means translation or commentary; avesta, or avastha, text or scripture. 
The Zend language is closely related to the Sanskrit. 

t Firdusi was the greatest epic poet of the Persians. His Book of Kings abounds 
in beautiful poetry, but is a strange medley of truth and fiction. It was written to 
please the King rather than to state historical facts. Firdusi died 1020 a.d. 



Review Outlii^e. 



Contemporaneous 
Events. 



EGYPTIAN fflSTORY. 



Babylon founded, 
3200 B.C. 



Arabian dynasty of 
Chaldean kings. 

Conquest of Baby- 
lon by the Assy- 
rians, 1250 B.C. 



Ethiopia indepen- 
dent, 750 B.C. 



Sargon, king 
Assyria, 745 
705 B.c 



Nineveh taken by 
the Medes, 625 

B.C. 

War between the 
Medes and Lyd- 
ians, 610 B.C. 

Babylon taken by 
Cyrus, 538 b. c. 



First dynasty of Egyptian kings (about 2700 B.C.). 
Memphis a large and flourishing city. 

Fourth dynasty — pyramid-builders — began about 
2500 B.C. Shufu (Suphis or Cheops) built the 
Great Pyramid (about 2400 B.C.). 

The Hyksos or Shepherd Kings (1900 to 1525 B.C.). 
The Israelites go down into Egypt, where they 
remained 215 years. The Exodus (1652 B.C.). 

The most splendid period of Egyptian history (1525 
to 1200 B.C.); reigns of Thothmes III. and IV.; 
conquests of Seti (Sesostris) and Barneses II.; 
magnificent temples erected in Egypt and Nubia. 
Great Ilall of Karnac built. 

Priestly dynasty of the Tauites ("High Priests of 
Amun") — period of Egyptian decline. 

Sheshonk (Shishak); partial revival of Egyptian 
glory ; invasion of Judah. 

Ethiopian (25th) dynasty; Sabaco (or So); conflict 
with Sargon (724 B.C.); Tirhakah, greatest of the 
Ethiopian kings; alliance with Hezekiah against 
Sennacherib. Conquest of Egypt by the Assy- 
rians; divided into subject states. 

Psammetichus, founder of the 26th dynasty, en- 
couraged art and constructed great military works 
(reigned from 664 to 610 B.C.). 

Necho or Nekao, son of Psammetichus ; great 
maritime enterprises; circumnavigation of Africa. 
Defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (605 B.C.). 

Amasis, fifth king of the 26th dynasty; a wise and 
active monarch; a long and prosperous reign. 

Psammenitus, son of Amasis ; defeated by Cam- 
byses, the king of Persia, at Pelusium (525 B.C.); 
end of the 30th dynasty of Manetho; Egypt 
under the rule of the Persians (31st dynasty). 



82 



Ancient History. 



PHCENICIANS. 



Early settlements 
and maritime en- 
terprises. 



Sidon and Tyre. 

Sidon subdued by 
the Philistines; 
Tyre predomi- 
nant (1050 B.C.). 



Carthage founded 
by the Tyrians, 
878 B.C. 

Phoenicia under 
Assyrian rule, 
about 830 B.C. 

Phoenicia under 
Egyptian rule, 
608 B.C. 

Con'quered by 
Nebuc h a d n e z - 
zar, and under 
Babylonian rule 
till subdued by 
Cyrus, 538 B.C. 

Tyre and Sidon 
taken by Alex- 
ander, 332 B.C. 



HEBREWS. 



Abraham's migration from Chaldea to Palestine 
(Canaan), about 2000 B.C.* 

Jacob and his sons go down into Egypt (about 
1867 B.C.). Sojourn in Egypt 215 years. Exodus, 
1652 B.C. ; beginning of the Jewish state. 

Period of the Judges— about five centuries, to 
Samuel, the last of the Judges. 

Saul, the first king, 1095 to 1055 B.C. 

David, 1055 to 1015 B.C. ; territories of the kingdom 
greatly enlarged. 

Splendid reign of Solomon, 1015 to 975 B.C.; great- 
est extent of the Jewish kingdom. 

Rehoboam's tyranny and insolence cause the dis- 
ruption of the kingdom into two: (1) Judah, that 
of Rehoboam, and (2) Israel, that of Jeroboam. 

Israel, having lasted 250 years, is destroyed by the 
Assyrians, 721 B.C. Hoshea, the last king. The 
captivity of the ten tribes. Judah lasted about 
385 years. 

Prosperous reign of Jehoshaphat, 916 to 892 B.C. 

Invasion by Sennacherib and the destruction of his 
army, during the reign of Hezekiah, 726 to 697 B.C. 

Jerusalem taken and destroyed. In the reign of 
Zedekiah, the last king (586 B.C.). The fifty 
years' captivity. Restoration of the Jews by 
edict of Cyrus, 536 B.C. 

Judea, the land of the Jews, under the rule of Persia 
till its conquest by Alexander the Great; after his 
death (324 B.C.), a part of Ptolemy's kingdom; sub- 
sequently, a part of the dominions of Antiochus 
the Great. Successful revolt of the Jews under 
Maccabeus, 165 B.C. : Judea, an independent king- 
dom till its conquest by Pompey the Great (63 B.C.). 



* It is impossible to fix witli any degree of accuracy the dates of these early 
events. The Biblical chronology, by Usher, puts the call of Abraham at 1821 e.g.; 
according to Lepsius, he entered Palestine about 1700 b.c. ; but according to Bunsen, 
2886 B.C. In Beer's Life of Abraham, his birth is placed in 2040 b.c. See Encyclo- 
pcBdia Britannica, Art. Abraham, 



Review Outline. 



83 



KINGS OF 


ISRAEL AND JUDAH. 




Kings of Israel. 


Length 
of reign. 
In years. 


Reign 
commenced. 

B.C. 


Kings of Judah. 


Length 
of reign, 
in years. 




22 

2 

2 



12 

22 

1 
13 

28 

17 
16 

41 

11 



10 

2 
20 

9 
9 


975 

958 . 

956 

954 

953 

930 

929 

929 

918 

916 

897 

896 

892 

885 

884 

878 

856 

839 

838 

823 

809 

772 
772 
771 
762 
700 
757 
741 

730 
726 
721 
697 
642 
640 
609 
609 
605 
597 
586 


Rehoboam 

Abijah 

Asa 


17 




3 
41 


Nadab 






Baasha 

Elah 




Zimri 




Omri 




Ahab 






25 




Jehoram 

Ahaziali 




Jehoram 






8 
1 


Jehu 


AthaUah 


6 






40 


Jehoahaz 












29 


Jeroboam 11 


Uzziah, or Azariah 

Jotham 






52 






Shallum 




Menahem 

Pekahiah 




Peka 






16 




Ahaz 

Hezekiah 


16 


Hoshea 


29 


Samaria taken 








55 




Amon 


2 




Josiah 

Jehoahaz 

Jehoiakim... 

Jehoiachin, or Coniah. . 
Zedekiah 


31 


11 


11 




Jerusalem taken 















THE PERSIANS. 

The Persian monarchy was founded by Achsemenes, about 650 b.c. 
The Pasargadae were the most prominent of the tribes. The Persians 
were at first subject to the Median monarchy. 

Cyrus having been kept as a hostage, and educated by his grand- 
father, Astyages, at Ecbatana, determines to throw off the Persian yoke. 
He defeats Astyages and makes him a prisoner, 558 B.C. He rapidly 
subdues the whole of western Asia; is killed in 589 B.C. 

Cambyses, son of Cyrus, conquers Egypt, and invades Ethiopia and 
Libya; is killed, 522 b.c. 



84 Ancient History, 



Darius I., Hystaspes, deposes the Magian impostor, Smerdis, and 
ascends the Persian throne, 522 B.C. He organizes the empire; under- 
takes expeditions to India and against the Scythians; suppresses the 
revolt of the Greek colouies, and determines to conquer Greece. 

Unfortunate expeditions of Mardonius, and of Datis and Artapher- 
nes; the latter defeated by the Greeks at Marathon, 490 B.C. 

Xerxes organizes a vast expedition against Greece, in 480 B.C. ; is 
totally defeated. 

Artaxerxes I. is compelled to make peace with the Greeks, 449 B.C. 

Darius III. (Codomanus), the last king oi' ancient Persia, is subju- 
gated by Alexander the Great (329 B.C.). End of the Persian Empire. 



THE PERSIAN MONARCHS. 



Name. Date of Reign. 

Cyrus the Ch-eat 559-529 b.c, 

Cambyses 529-522 

Smerdis, a usurper 522 

Darius I., Hystasjjes 522-485 

Xerxes 1 485-465 

Artaxerxes I. ,Longimamis. 4(j5-A25 
Xerxes U. (reigned 45 days) — 425 



Name. Date of Reign, 

SoGDiANUS, a usuiper 425 b.c. 

Darius II., Nothus 424-405 " 

Artaxerxes II., Mnemon . . .405-359 " 

Artaxerxes III., Ochus 359-338 " 

Arses 338-336 " 

Darius IU., Codomanus 33fr-329 " 



LEADING DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 

B.C. 

1052. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 

1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. 

1055. David begins to reign over Israel. 

1015. Accession of Solomon. 

975. Secession of the Ten Tribes. 

878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 

747. Era of Nabonassar. 

721. Samaria taken ; end of kingdom of Israel. 

625. Taking of Nineveh by the Medes. 

586. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 

5.58. Conquest of the Medes by Cyrus. 

538. Taking of Babylon by Cyrus. 

536. Restoration of the Jews. 

525. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 

522. Accession of Darius Hystaspes. 

501. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. 

490. Defeat of the Persians at Marathon. 

480. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. 

329. Persia conquered by Alexander the Great, 



No. 3. 




CE. 



1^ ^ Ma 



CHAPTER II. 
Gkeece and Macedonia. 



SECTION I. 

Geogeaphical Sketch. 

1. The country known in history as Greece anciently con- 
sisted of three quite distinct parts: the first, in the north, 
was composed of Thes'sa-ly and E-pi'rus; the 
second, in the middle, which was the most impor- 



Divisions. 



tant, was called Hel'las ; and the third consisted of the 
peninsula which forms the southern portion of the country, 
called anciently Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, in modern times Mo-re'a. 
To these was afterward added Macedonia, which was situated 
to the north of Thessaly and Epirus. 

2. Central Greece and Peloponnesus were divided into 
seyeral small states, of which the most important were the 
following: 

Hellas. — At'tica, Boe-o'tia, Pho'cis, East and West Lo'- 
cris, Do'ris, ^E-to'lia, Acarna'nia, and Meg'aris. 

Pelopon"N"esus. — Corin'thia, Sicyonia {sishe- 



Grecian states. 



on'ia), Ar'go-lis, Achaia (a-ha'ijali), Arca'dia, E'lis, Laconia, 
and Messe'nia. 

Besides these, the land of the Hel-le'nes included the 
Islands and the Colonies. Of the islands, the largest was 
Euboea {ii-le'ah), near the eastern coast of Hellas; 
and near the western coast was the important 



Islands. 



island Cor-cy'ra. Numerous islands were scattered over the 
^gaean (e-jVan) Sea, among which the principal groups 
were the Cyc'la-des and Spo'ra-des. The term Hellas was 



86 



Ancient History. 



sometimes used to denote the whole of Greece and her 
colonies. * 

3. The Grecian colonies were very numerous and wide- 
spread. Those in and near Asia Minor were planted at a very 
early period by three different races, the ^olians, Dorians, and 
lonians. The ^olians made settlements on the 
coast of Mysia and in the island of Lesbos, form- 
ing a confederacy of twelve cities (^olis). The lonians col- 



Colonies. 




onized the coast of Lydia and the islands of Chios {he^os) and 
Samos (Ionia); and the Dorian colonies were in the south- 
western part of Asia Minor (Doris). Of these the lonians 
grew into the greatest importance. Their cities were espe- 
cially noted for their enterprise, and during the eighth and 
seventh centuries B.C. Miletus was the first commercial city 
of the Hellenic race; but Eph'e-sus afterward rivaled it in size 
and importance. [See map.] 

* " The limits of Greece proper seem not to have been very precisely defined 
even among the Greeks themselves ; and so large a proportion of the Hellens were 
distributed among islands and colonies, and so much of their influence upon the 
world was produced through their colonies, as to render the extent of their original 

domicile a matter of comparatively little moment to verify Hellas 

proper (or continuous Hellas) was understood to begin with the town and gulf of 
Ambracia. "— G^?-oie. 



Greece and Macedonia. 



87 



4. The southern part of Italy was called Magna Gr£ecia, 
from the large number of Greek cities which it 
contained. One of the earliest was Cu'mae, an 



Magna Graecia. 




^olic colony, on the bay of Naples; but the most prominent 

were Syb'aris, noted for 

its effeminacy and loose 

morals, and Oro'ton, 

distinguished for its 

athletes and physicians. 

After the destruction of 

Sybaris by its rival Cro- 

ton, Taren'tum took the 

lead among the cities of 

Magna Grrtecia. Sicily 

also contained a large 

number of Greek cities, 

of which the most noted 

were Messa'na, Syr'a-cuse, and Agrigen'tum. Syracuse was 

a Corinthian colony, founded 734 B.C. [See Map.] 

6. There was also a cluster of colonies at the western part 
of the Mediterranean Sea, of which Mas-sa'lia (now Mar- 
seilles), founded 600 B.C., was the chief. On the i 

1 T n T 1 i 1 Other colonies. 

African coast, Cy-re ne was established by the 

Spartans (630 B.C.). This city became the capital of Cyre- 
naica {d-re-na'e-hali). On the Propontis and the Euxine 
there were also numerous colonies, of which Cyz'i-cus and 
Si-no'pe were the most celebrated. 

6. The physical features of the mainland, particularly 
of Hellas proper, are (1) the deep inlets with which its 
coasts are indented, thus favoring maritime enter- 
prises and associations, and bringing the people 

into connection with the ancient commercial i 

nations; and (2) the numerous mountain ridges by which 
its surface was divided into distinct portions, thus favoring 
the formation of independent states. It is the existence of 



Physical 
features. 



88 Ancient History. 



these free states that renders the history of the Greeks so 
interesting and instructive, and makes the contrast so striking 
between it and the history of the ancient Asiatic and African 
monarchies. When we come to the period of Greek nation- 
ality, we cease to contemiohite merely a record of the splendid 
deeds of emperors and kings; we look on the progress and 
exploits of a free people. 

Geographical Study. 

[See Map No. III., and maps, pages 86,87.] 

What was the sihiatio7i of : Attica^ Bceotia ? Phocis ? East LocRis ? West 
LocRis ? Doris ? -^tolia ? Acarnania ? Megaris ? Corinthia ? Laconia ? 
Argolis ? AcHAiA ? Arcadia ? Elis ? Messenia ? Sicyonia ? Epirus ? Thes- 
SALY ? Macedonia? Magna Gr^cia ? Sicily? Euboeal.? Salamis I. ? Cyclades 
Is. ? Lesbos I. ? Samos I. ? Rhodes I. ? Pindus range ? CEta Mts. ? Mt. Olympus ? 
Mt. Parnassus ? Athens? Thebes ? Delphi ? Corinth ? Sparta ? Platsea ? Mar- 
athon ? Chalcis ? Argos ? Olympia ? Sicyon ? The Dorian Colonies ? Ionian 
Colonies ? ^Eolian Colonies ? Croton ? Sybaris ? Tarentum ? Cumse ? Paestum ? 
Syracuse ? Messana ? Agrigentum ? 



SECTION 11. 
First Period. 

LEGENDARY OR TRADITIONAL HISTORY. 

From the Earliest Times to 776 B.C. 

7. The great Aryan v/ave of migration which, passing 
westward from Asia, swept over Europe, appears to have 
reached Greece in very early times. To this race 
the people called the Pelasgi belonged, relics of 



Pelasgi. 



whose civilization still exist in the remains of a peculiar archi- 
tecture called Cyclo'pean, from the huge masses of stone of 
which the walls were built. But the Pelasgi formed only 
an important tribe among very many that then existed in 
the Greek peninsula, under different names, as Lel'e-ges, 
Ou-re'tes, Dol'o-pes, etc. This was the ^^ golden age" of the 



Greece and Macedonia. 89 

poets, for these tribes were a peiiceful, agricultural or pastoral 
people, with simple manners and religion, probably knowing 
nothing of the numerous gods of the later Greeks. 

8. The Hel-le'nes, a kindred but more vigorous race, at 
an early period poured into the peninsula from the north, and 
gradually gained a dominant influence over the 
people with whom they intermingled. Of these 



there were originally two tribes, the Achae'ans and the Do'- 
rians, under the former of whom the three ancient kingdoms, 
Ar'gos, My-ce'nae, and Sparta, in the Peloponnesus, attained 
a considerable degree of civilization and prosperity. The 
Dorians, in the course of time, became an exceedingly bold 
and warlike tribe. Afterward two other tribes grew into 
importance, the lonians and ^olians; and these four tribes 
gradually assimilated, constituting the four divisions of the 
Hellenic peoj^le; but among these the lonians and Dorians 
became the leading races. 

9. The most ancient traditions represent the country as 
divided into a large number of small states, each under its 
own chief, or petty king, and engaged in war or 
piracy. This period is usually called the Heroic 



Heroic age. 



Age, because it abounds in fabulous stories of men of sujoer- 
human strength and valor, such as Hercules, Theseus {ihe'- 
silse), Achilles {a-hiVUz), etc. The most interesting events 
referred to in this jieriod were the Argonautic expedition and 
the Tro'jan war. The first, supposed to have occurred about 
1225 B.C., was an enterprise the object of which, according 
to the tradition, was to bring from Colchis {IcoVhis) the 
^"^ golden fleece." * The heroes who engaged in it were called 



* Athamas, king of Boeotia, married Neph'e-le, a cloud-nymph, but wearj ing of 
her, divorced her, and man-led Ino, who sought to put the two children of Nephele, 
Phryxus and Hel'le, to death. To rescue them, Nephele placed them on the back 
of a winged ram having a fleece of pure gold, the gift of Hermes, and they were 
carried away, but in crossing the strait between Europe and Asia, Helle fell into 
the sea, which was thenceforth called, after her, the Hellespont. Phryxus reached 
Colchis, and in gratitude for his preservation sacrificed the ram to Zeus. The 



90 



Ancient History. 



the Argonauts, because they sailed in a vessel called Argo. 

It appears to have been either a commercial voyage or a 

piratical expedition, its real object being disguised by the fable 

of the ^''golden fleece." 

10. The Trojan war is related by Homer in his famous 

poem called the Iliad (from Iliiwi, the ancient name of 
Troy). It was undertaken to avenge the crime 
committed by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, 

who had abused the hospitality of Menela'us, king of Sparta, 

by carrying off his wife Helen, 
said to be the most beautiful 
woman of those times. The 
states of Greece joined in the 
war, and elected Agamem'non, 
brother of the Spartan kiug, 
their common general. Nearly 
the whole of Asia Minor leagued 
with Troy, whose chief leader 
was Hector, son of Priam. Troy 
was besieged ten years, and was 
finally taken by stratagem and 

burned (1184 B.C. ). Homer's great poem the Od'ys-sey relates 

the wanderings of U-lys'ses, king of Ithaca, on his return 




home from the war. 

11. The traditions seem to indicate that important foreign 

elements were introduced into the Hellenic nation during 
this early period. Egyptians settled in Attica 
and Argolis; Phoenicians, in Boeotia; and Mysians, 
or Phrygians, at Argos. Hence was derived the 



Foreign 
settlements. 



use of letters from the Phoenicians (probably before 1100 B.C.). 
But these foreigners were few in number, and left only a faint 
trace upon the language or customs of the people. These 



fleece was carefully preserved, and Aetes, kin^ of Colchis, being told that his life 
depended upon its safety, had it guarded by an immense dragon that never slept. 
Colchis was situated to the east of the Euxine, or Black Sea, 



Greece and Macedonia. 91 

traditions give the names of Cecrops, the founder of Athens 
(about 1550 B.C.— period of Moses in Egypt); Cadmus, the 
founder of Thebes, in Bceotia (about 1492 B.C. — during the 
Chaldean Monarchy); and Pelops, who came to the Pelo- 
ponnesus from Phrygia (about 1300 B.C. — during the time of 
the Judges, in Israel). 

12. The general state of society in the period referred to 
in Homer's poems presents several marked features: 1. The 
tribe was superior to the city; while, in later 
times, the city became the mistress of the nation. 
2. The kingly rule everywhere prevailed, and the 



State 
of society. 



office was hereditary. 3. There was also a powerful body of 
hereditary nobles, from whom the council of the office was 
selected, and an assembly to assist in administering the govern- 
ment, but with no control over it. 4. Slavery was a prevail- 
ing institution; females were held in respect, and polygamy 
disapproved; warlike virtue and physical courage were the 
greatest virtues, and consequently war was incessant; nauti- 
cal habits were quite general, and piracy was a common prac- 
tice. 5. There was a strong religious feeling, a respect for 
the priesthood, and a reverence for the temples, sacred 
places, and festivals. Hospitality was a national virtue, 
and heralds and suppliants were protected. Polytheism, or 
the worship of many gods, was the prevailing religious prac- 
tice. 

13. This is also the period of those early leagues among 
the states called Am])liictyonies. These were formed origi- 
nally for religious purposes — to protect sacred 
buildings, lands, persons, and rites, and not for 
political objects. The oracle, or shrine of Delphi, was the 
center of the most noted of these. It was formed by twelve 
states or tribes; and meetings were held twice a 
year, in the spring at Delphi and in the autumn 
at Thermopylae. This league, called the Ampliic- 



Early leagues. 



Amphictyonic 
council. 



tijonic Council, played quite a prominent part in the subse- 



92 Ancient History. 



quent history of Grreece.* As there was no general political 
union, the Hellenic states were constantly embroiled during 
most of their history in mutual dissensions and destructive 
wars. This was partly due to the traditional animosities and 
jealousies of the different tribes, and partly to the geographi- 
cal character of the country in which they dwelt; for being 
crossed in every direction by mountain chains, or divided by 
deep gulfs, it provided those natural barriers which encour- 
age local pride and engender hostility. The later history 
of this remarkable people abounds in illustrations of this prin- 
ciple. 

14. A great migratory movement commenced in Epirus 
about 1200 B.C. The Thessalians crossed the Pindus range 
and invaded the fertile country of the Boeotians, 
who passing southward entered the plain of the 



Migrations. 



Ce-phis'sus, and drove out the Cadmeians, who were scattered in 
various parts. The Dorians also took part in this movement, 
and for a time settled in the country, which then received the 
name of Do'ris. The most important Dorian migration, how- 
ever, took place later. Crossing the Corinthian Gulf, they 
entered the Peloponnesus with their allies, the ^tolians, and 
made a conquest of the country (1124 B.C.). This movement, 
being conducted by the descendants of Her'cu-les, is called 
in history the Eeturn of the Heracleidm {her-a-cli'de), the 
Greek name of Hercules being He'ra-cles. 

15. The former inhabitants, the Achaeans, proceeding 
northward, attacked the lonians, whom they drove eastward 
to Attica. A part of these passed through the 
Cyclades across the ^g^ean, and established the 



Colonies. 



colony of Ionia, in Asia Minor; as tlie ^olian colony had 

* "The tendency to relig^ious fraternity took a form called an Amphictyony, 
different from the common festival. A certain number of towns entered into an 
exclusive religious partnership, for the celebration of sacrifices periodically to the 
god of a particular temple, which was supposed to be the common property, and 
■ under the common protection of all There were many religious part- 
nerships of this sort."— Grroie. 



Greece and Macedonia. 93 



been previously caused by the Boootian conquest. The 
Dorian invasion caused a part of the Achaeans to emigrate to 
Asia under Doric leaders, while another part settled in Italy. 



SECTION III. 
Second Period. 

DAWN OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY. 

From 776 b.c. to 500 B.C. 

16. The authentic history of Greece may be properly con- 
sidered to commence 776 B.C.; that is, at the first recorded 
Olympiad, a period of four years, which elapsed 
between two successive celebrations of the Olympic 



Olympiads. 



games. These games were celebrated in honor of Jupiter, at 
Olympia, in Elis, and constituted the most splendid national 
festival of the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the darkness 
of antiquity. It was, as is supposed, about this time (776 
B.C.) that Lycur'gus reformed the government 
and laws of Sparta, and gave to it the constitu- 



Sparta. 



tion by means of which it afterward acquired the supremacy 
in Grecian affairs. This city, the capital of Laconia, some- 
times called Lacedaemon {las-e-de'mon), was conquered by 
the Dorians, when they invaded the Peloponnesus, and soon 
became the head of the Dorian states. 

17. The system of Lycurgus was designed to perpetuate 
the primitive simplicity and hardihood of the people, by pre- 
venting the spread of luxury, and by educating 
the youth so as to make them brave and patriotic 
soldiers. To this end everything was sacrificed. 



Laws of 
Lycurgus. 



Most of the usages of society commonly considered refined 
were repressed; even the natural affections were extinguished. 
Prom the seventh year the children were taken from their 



94 Ancient History. 

parents to be educated by the state, unless they were weakly, 
when they were exposed to perish. They were trained to 
endure hunger and thirst and the extremes of heat and cold, 
and to suffer without murmur the severest bodily pain. 
Gymnastic exercises and military drill were incessant; in short, 
the great object was to make them good soldiers. They took 
their meals in public, and were allowed only the plainest fare. 
Besides this athletic training, letters and music were taught. 
Girls were educated with no less care than boys, and were 
subjected to similar athletic training. 

18. The men were allowed but little more freedom than 
the boys. They took their meals at the public tables, and slept 
in the public barracks, but were allowed to visit their homes 
at certain intervals. Their public duties occupied nearly 
all their time, so that they could not engage in private enter- 
prises of commerce or agriculture, or any occupation of profit. 
The use of gold and silver was strictly forbidden, and the 
money was coined out of iron.* Marriage was regulated by 
the state, and at a certain age all were obliged to marry. 

19. The government was administered by two chief magis- 
trates called kings, Avho were hereditary, but whose power 

was very limited; a senate, elected by a general 
assembly of the older citizens; and five magis- 



Government. 



trates, called epJi'ors {epli'o-ri). The kings presided in the 
senate, and led the armies. The special business of the 
ephors was to watch over the constitution, as established by 
Lycurgus, and bring to swift punishment all who violated it 
in the least. They had great power: they could restrain the 

* "The first gold and silver coins were brought from Asia to Hellas as an article 
of commerce. Gradually they came into use as money. After the state had com- 
menced to coin its own money, for a long time there existed only a small amount 
of coined money in the land, and this was chiefly in the hands of the men of 
business and merchants. As soon as money ceased to be an article of trade like 
other articles coming on the market, when even the poorer classes could not exist 
without it— the laws of debt prevailing in the interest of the proprietors, — money, 
like a poisonous plant, absorbed and consumed the strength of the land."— C^trfms's 
History of Greece, 



Greece and Macedonia. 95 

kings and control the public assemblies; and they were the 
arbiters of peace and war. 

20. This wonderful constitution made, in a short time, a 
nation of warriors; while the women themselves sank their 
natural affections in their devotion to their coun- 
try. No Spartan mother would deign to look at 
a son who had disgraced himself by cowardice or 



Spartan 
character. 



treason. ^'Eeturn with your shield or upon it!" was her 
admonition to her son when he was about to depart for the field 
of battle. Military glory was, however, all the Spartans 
attained. They had no orators, no poets, no historians, no 
philosophers, nor artists. Their Helots, or slaves, performed 
all the labors of the husbandman and the artisan, thus leaving 
to the free only the pursuits of war. 

21. The effect of this system was illustrated in the wars 
which the Spartans waged against the Messenians. The first 
of these lasted twenty years (743-723 B.C.); and 
the second, seventeen years (685-668 B.C.). They 
resulted in the total defeat of the Messenians and 



Messenian 
wars. 



in their partial dispersion into various parts, so that for the 
next three centuries Messenia formed a part of Laconia.* 
Wars were also waged by Sparta with the other states of the 
Peloponnesus, which resulted in extending her 
authority over the whole peninsula. The Area- 



other wars. 



dians became her subject allies (560 B.C.); the Argives were 
too much weakened by defeat to make any further resistance 
(547 B.C. ) ; and no northern state could, at that period, com- 
pete with her in war. Thus, in the sixth century B.C., 
Sparta became the controlling power in the Peloponnesus, 
and threatened to extend her sway over all Greece. 

22. The most important state of Central Greece, after- 
ward the great rival of Sparta, was at this period Attica, of 

* More than two centuries later, when the Helots, or slaves, revolted at Sparta, 
the Messenians attempted to regain their independence, thus bringing on a third 
Messenian ivar, which lasted for ten years. It was closed by a treaty which 
permitted the Messenians to remove, with their families, from the Peloponnesus. 



96 Ancient History. 



which the capital was Ath'ens, in some respects the most 
renowned city in the world. It was the seat of learning and 
the arts, and may justly be considered the mother 
of modern civilization. Its people were of Ionian 



origin, although in the mythic history of Athens it is said to 
have been first settled by a colony from Egypt, under Ce'crops 
(about 1550 B.C.). Until the eleventh century, its govern- 
ment was monarchical; but after the return of the Heracleidae 
it was vested in elective magistrates, called arcltons (ar'kons). 
The last king of Athens, Oo'drus, in a war with the Dorians, 
sacrificed his life to save the city from capture. This was 
done in pursuance of the words of the oracle: "If the king 
die, the Athenians shall triumph," Accordingly, Oodrus, in 
the disguise of a peasant, entered the camp of the enemy and 
assaulted one of the soldiers, and was immediately slain by 
him. The discovery of the death of the Athenian king so 
disheartened the Heracleidae, or Dorians, that they retreated, 
and it was decreed at Athens that no man was worthy to suc- 
ceed Codrus. 

23. Athens suffered for centuries from anarchy and mis- 
rule; but, in the seventh century (624 B.C.), it adopted the 
laws proposed by Dra'co, which were so severe 
that they were said to have been Avritten in blood. 



Draco's code of laws imposed the penalty of death for all 
offences; "for," he said, "the smallest crime deserves death, 
and I can find no heavier penalty for the greatest." They 
gave place to the constitution and laws devised by Solon 
(594 B.C.).* By these the government was vested in a senate 

* Solon was counted among the "Seven Sages of Greece," namely; Bi'as, 
Chi'lo, Cleobu'lus, Pit'tacus, Perian'der, So'lon, and Tha'les. To these are 
attributed many pithy moral maxims; as, "Know thyself," "Know thy oppor- 
tunity," "Consider the end," "The greatest blessing is the power to do good," 
" Pardon often checks crime more effectuall.y than punishment." 

" An untiring love of knowledge filled Solon from his earliest youth up to the 
end of his life; for even when at the point of death he Is said to have raised his 
weary head to take part in the conversations of his friends. This love of knowledge, 
as well as his domestic circumstances, early caused him to quit the narrow circle 



Greece and Macedonia. 



97 



or council, a general assembly of the people, and a chief 



Solon. 



magistrate, called Arclion (ruler), with eight in- 
ferior executive officers. The most venerable court 
of justice was that styled the A-re-op'a-gus,* the members of 
which were inspectors of educa- 
tion and morals, as well as ad- 
ministrators of the laws. 

24. The constitution of Solon 
laid the foundation of the great- 
ness of Athens; but this plan of 
government was not of long du- 
ration. The discontented were 
for a time restrained by his per- 
sonal influence, but violent con- 
tentions soon broke out among 
the local factions. Of these, Solon. 

Pi-sis'tra-tus took advantage, and seized the government as 
dictator (560 B.C.). He exercised a despotic sway 
for thirty-three years, and transmitted his au- 




Pisistratus. 



thority to his two sons, Hip'pi-as and Hip-par'chus, called 
sometimes the PisistrafidcB (sons of Pisistratus). He, how- 
ever, ruled with moderation, patronized literature and the 
arts, adorned Athens with many beautiful buildings, opened a 
public library, and collected, it is said, the poems of Homer, f 



of home, and to explore the world. In the midst of his restless life of travel, all his 
thoughts and wishes remained devoted to his home. Whatever met his eye he 
looked upon with reference to Attic interests. "—C?m-^/ws's History of Greece. 

* Areopagus (Mars Hill) was the name given to a small eminence near the 
Acropolis at Athens. The court of Areopagus was held here, in an open space, 
containing at first only an altar to Minerva and two stone seats, for the accuser 
and the defendant. Later, the space was inclosed and roofed with tiles. This court 
was said to have been founded by Athene (Minerva) ; and when the judges were 
equally divided she gave the casting vote. Religious- causes and murders were tried 
in this court; for here it was, according to the legend, that Ares (Mars) was tried 
for the murder of the son of Poseidon (Neptune). [See cut, page 98.] 

t It is beUeved that ^sop, the celebrated author of the Fables, was a friend of 
Pisistratus. This personage only wanted a lawful title to the sovereignty which 
he exercised, to have left his name to posterity as one of the most splendid 
examples of princely virtue, 



Ancient History. 



Hippias and 
Hipparchus. 



25. His successors, Hip2:>ias and Hipparchus, governed 
for several years with mildness and justice; but an act of 

tyranny committed by Hippias caused a conspir- 
acy to be formed against them, and Hipparchus 
was slain (514 B.C.). Hippias ruled with great 
severity for four years longer, when he was expelled, with the 
aid of the Spartans (510 B.C.). He took refuge at the court 
of Darius, king of Persia. Harmo'dius and Ar-is-to-gi'ton, 
the leaders in the conspiracy against the tyrants, were ever 
after held in honor. Statues were erected to their memories, 
and their descendants enjoyed an immunity from all taxes 
and public burdens. 

26. After the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias from Athens, 
the government, under the administration of Clis'the-nes, an 

able statesman, underwent several modifications. 
Clisthenes, next to Solon, may be considered 



Clisthenes. 



the founder of the free 

institutions of Athens. 

The measures adopted by 

him made the government 

truly democratic; for all 

classes — the poor as well 

as the rich — felt they had 

an equal interest in the 

welfare of the state. A 

very remarkable institu- 
tion was devised at this 

time to prevent, in the 

future, any powerful and 

ambitious citizen from 

making himself dictator 

or despot. This was the famous Os/fmmm, by which any citizen 
could be banished for ten years without trial or 
even any formal accusation, but simply by a vote 




Ruins op Areopagus and the Acropolis 
AT Athens. 



Ostracism. 



pf the people, each citizen writing the name of the person 



Greece and Macedonia. 99 

whom he wished to banish on a shell {ostracon). Six thou- 
sand votes were required against any person to determine his 
condemnation. Though apparently unjust and unreasonable, 
this law was effective, for no attempt at usurpation occurred 
after its establishment. 

27. The Age of Despots. It was not in Athens alone that 
despotic power was usurped and the popular government over- 
turned. From 650 to 500 B.C. there were but few of the Gre- 
cian cities that escaped this calamity. Hence this period has 
been called the Age of Despots. In the city of 
Sicyon {sish'e-on) a despotic dynasty lasted for 
more than a hundred years, and in Corinth one 



Sicyon and 
Corinth. 



that continued seventy-four years. The most noted of the des- 
pots of Corinth was Pe-ri-an'der, whose sway (from 625 to 585 
B.C.), though oppressive and cruel, made that city the wealth- 
iest and most commercial in all Grreece. Like Pisistratus, he 
was a patron of literature and art, and his prudence and intelli- 
gence were such that he was classed among the Seven Wise 
Men of Grreece. 



SECTION IV. 
Third Period. 

THE PERSIAN WAR. 

From 500 e.g. to 449 B.C. 



28. The Grreek colonies in Asia Minor had been subject to 
Croesus, but when the Lydian monarchy was overturned by 
Cyrus they fell under the Persian yoke. [See page 
37.] In 500 B.C., an insurrection against Darius 
broke out at Mi-le'tus, the capital of Ionia, and 



Revolt of the 
colonies. 



spread through all the Greek cities in Asia. In this revolt, an 
Athenian force was sent to aid the lonians, by means of 
which the city of Sardis was taken and burnt. The Ionian 



100 



Ancient History. 



fleet having been defeated, and the city of Miletus captured 
by the forces of Darius, the revolt was speedily subdued, and 
the Greek colonies were completely subjugated, and treated 
with great severity. All the inhabitants of Miletus were 
either put to death, or sent into captivity. 

29. The aid given by Athens to the lonians and the burn- 
ing of Sardis drew down the wrath of Darius upon all Greece. 
As soon as the colonies were reduced, he resolved 
to make a conquest of that country. Every day, 
as he sat down to dinner, a slave was ordered to 
repeat thrice the words, '' Master, remember the Athenians!" 

In this desio-n, he was 



First expedition 
of Darius. 




Marathon 



BATTLE OF 

MAHATHON 



further instigated by 
the revengeful repre- 
sentations of his guest, 
the tyrant Hippias. 
The first expedition 
which he dispatched 
against Greece proved 
an entire failure, the 
fleet being wrecked 
and a large part of the 
further weakened in a 



off Mount Athos [see map No. III.] 
army drowned. The forces were still 
night attack made by the Thracians, and Mardonius, the Per- 
sian general, was compelled to retreat (492 B.C.). 

30. A second expedition, under Da'tis and Ar-ta-pher'nes, 
sailed across the JE-ge'an Sea, and after reducing 
several islands landed at Mar'a-thon, twenty-two 
miles from Athens. Here they were met by a 
small army of Athenian soldiers under Mil-ti'a-des,* and 



Second 
expedition. 



* Miltiades was only one of ten generals to whom the command of the army 
had been given, each in succession having the right to conduct it for a day. 
Aristides inr-is-ti'des), however, showed his moderation and patriotism by giving 
up his command to Miltiades, as being tlie best general; and, his example having 
been followed by the others, the result was a glorious victory. Few of the char- 
acters of history are so worthy of praise as the noble and patriotic Aristides. 



Greece and Macedonia. 



101 



Ba«le of 
Marathon. 



completely routed (490 B.C.). This was one of the most mem- 
orable battles ever fought. The Persians, then 
famed as the greatest soldiers in the world, were 

more than ten times as numerous as the Greeks, 

and previous to that battle had scarcely known a check in 

their conquests. Had they succeeded at Marathon, European 

civilization would probably have 

assumed a new face; but, through 

the genius of Miltiades and the 

patriotic daring of the Athenians, 

aided by a small band of the Pla- 

tge'ans, the invaders were driven 

back, and Greece was saved.* 

31. The attempt was not re- 
newed by the Persians till ten years 
afterward, when Xerxes, the suc- 
cessor of Darius, collected one of 
the largest armies the world has ever known, besides an 
immense fleet, and having crossed the Hellespont 
by means of two bridges which he had caused to 
be constructed, f marched to the Pass of Ther- 
mop'y-lse, on his way into Greece. Here he was oj^posed by a 
small army under Le-on'i-das, a Spartan general. The defense 
was successful, until a traitor discovered to the Persians a 




Miltiades. 



Expedition of 
Xerxes. 



path across the mountains, when, seeing no hope of victory, 



* Miltiades did not retain the glory which he gained by this splendid victory. 
He died in prison, of wounds received in a treasonable and unsuccessful attack 
upon the island of Paros. 

t Herodotus gives a picturesque description of the passage of this vast force 
across the strait from Asia into Europe, after a review by Xerxes, sitting upon a 
marble throne , erected for the haughty monarch on a hill near Abydos. Libations 
were made by him with a golden censer, and with them he cast into the sea a 
golden bowl and Persian cimeter, at the same time offering up prayers to Helios, 
the god of the sun. The ten thousand Persians called the Immortals, all wearing 
garlands, were the first to pass over; and then followed Xerxes, at the head of the 
army. Notwithstanding the application of the lash to accelerate the progress of 
the soldiers, the passage occupied no less than seven days and nights, without 
any intermission. See Grate's History of Greece. 



102 



Ancient History. 



but being forbidden by the laAvs of Sparta to flee from the 
enemy, Leonidas dismissed the forces of the allies to avoid 
useless bloodshed, and then formed the ranks of his little 
band of three hundred for a final stand against 
the enemy. He then led them into the midst 



Thermopylae. 



Thriasian Plain 
JHeus 



of the Persians, whence, after making great slaughter, they 
retired to a small eminence, and there fell, one by one, under 

the arrows of the 
Medes (480 B.C.). 
The heroism of 
Leonidas and his 
band has ever been 
a subject of praise 
and admiration. 
Probably, no event 
in the history of the 
Spartans has shed 




MtHymettus 



SO much glory upon their character as the sublime self-devotion 
of the three hundred; yet it was a useless sacrifice of the lives 
of these brave men, who might have served their country far 
better by preserving their courage and strength for the con- 
flicts that were to come. 

32. The great Persian fleet came to action with the much 
smaller one of the Greeks in the narrow strait of 
Sal'a-mis, and was defeated with immense loss; 



Salamis. 



SO that Xerxes, who had witnessed the fight, fled in dismay 
to Persia, leaving the conquest of Greece to his general, 
Mardonius.* The chief command of the fleet had been 

* The Persian monarch, confident of victory, seated himself upon a throne 
placed on a lofty promontory, so as to overlook the scene of the naval battle. It 
was of this event that Byron wrote the following lines: 
" A king sat on the rocky brow 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; 
And ships by thousands lay below, 
And men in nations, — all were his. 
He counted them at break of day, 
And when the sun set, where were they?" 



Greece and Macedonia. 103 

given to the Spartan Eu-ry-bi'a-des; but the credit of this 
great victory was due to the Athenian The-mis'to-cles, who, 
when the Greeks, in alarm, were about to disperse their fleet, 
sent word to the Persians that unless they made an immedi- 
ate attack the Grecian fleet would escape them. By this 
stratagem he succeeded in keeping the allies together and 
brought on the action. 

33. In the mean time, the land forces of the Persians had 
invaded Attica and taken and destroyed Athens, the inhabi- 
tants of which had fled to the neighboring islands 
for protection. Thus was the burning of Sardis 
avenged. Still, the army of Mardonius, 300,000 



Burning of 
Athens. 



strong, and assisted by Grecian auxiliaries (for a few of the 
Greek states had gone over to the Persians), did not come to 
any decisive engagement till the next year (479 
B.C.), when it was defeated and almost utterly 
destroyed at Platge'a by the allied army of the 



Battle of 
Plataea. 



Greeks, consisting of 110,000 men, uuder Pau-sa'ni-as, a 
Spartan general, assisted by the Athenian A-ris- 
ti'des. On the same day the Athenians gained 



Mycale. 



a great victory over the combined land and naval forces of 
the Persians at Myc'a-le, in Asia Minor. 

34. Having driven the Persians out of their country, the 
Greeks sent a fleet under Pausanias to invade the Persian 
dominions. This expedition was entirely suc- 
cessful ; the Greek cities were set free, and 
Byzantium {be-zan' she-u7n) , after a long siege. 



Byzantiur 
taken. 



surrendered. At this point the Spartans, who had been the 
leaders in the war, lost their ascendency through the trea- 
son of Pausanias. Intoxicated by the fame and 
wealth which he had acquired at Plataea, and by 
his subsequent success, and ambitious of more 



Treason of 
Pausanias. 



splendor and influence than the little state of Sparta could 
confer upon him, he sent a letter to Xerxes, offering to 
deliver Greece into his power, if he would give him his 



104 



Ancient History. 



daughter in marriage. The plot was, however, discovered 
before it was carried into effect, and Pausanias was recalled, 
and, by order of the Ephori, put to death (471 B.C.).* 

35. The allies then transferred the chief command to 
Aristides, who had at this time a great reputation for in- 
tegrity and jirudence. A league was also formed 
among the lonians and some of the Greek islands, 
under the leadership of Athens, which was called 



Confederacy of 
Deles. 



the ^^ Confederacy of De'los," since the deputies met at that 
island. This great maritime alliance contributed very much 
to the subsequent influence of Athens. It lasted about 
seventy years. 

36. The glory which Themistocles had gained at Salamis, 
together with his great ability and prudence, gave him un- 

; 1 limited influence at Athens. 

Ll After the retreat of the 

Persians, he caused the city to be re- 
built and strongly fortified, notwith- 
standing the opposition prompted by 
the mean jealousy of the Spartans. 
But, after the fall of Pausanias, he was 
accused of participating in his treason, 
and was banished by the Ostracism 
(471 B.C.). He then took refuge in 
the dominions of Artaxerxes, the Per- aristides. 

sian monarch, where he lived in great splendor and dignity 
till his death (449 B.C.). 

37. In the early period of the Persian war, Themistocles 
and Aristides were the most distinguished men at Athens. 
They were rivals for popular favor, particularly during the 
ten years preceding the invasion of Xerxes. Tlie former was 

* Pausanias was a man of great ability, but his ambition, pride, and desire of 
display destroyed him. On his return to Sparta he took refuge in the temple of 
Minerva, from which he could not lawfully be taken by violence. Accordingly, 
the entrance was fastened and the building unroofed, and he was left to perish by 
famine and exposure. [Ephori, literally, overseers; magistrates. See page 88.] 




Greece and Macedonia. 



105 



especially noted for his genius and Ins ambition; the latter 
for his prudence and stern integrity. Having been commis- 
sioned to take charge of the spoils after the battle 
of Marathon, Aristides so honorably discharged 
his duty that he was called '' The Just." * This 



Themistocles 
and Aristides. 



brought him into envy, and he was banished by the Ostra- 
cism (483 B.C.). He returned, however, just in time to aid 
his country in the battle of Salamis. Aristides survived the 




The Acropolis at Athens. 

banishment of his great rival only a short time. He died 
honored by his countrymen, and with a reputation for virtue 
and patriotism that no one could impeach (468 B.C.); but as 
to the place and circumstances of his death the accounts given 
greatly differ. Notwithstanding his eminent services, he was 
so poor that his funeral had to be provided for at the public 
expense, and his children supported by state bounty. It is 

* Themistocles had artfully insinuated that Aristides was aiming at the dicta- 
torship at Athens, and thus the people were induced to banish the most upright 
man in the communitj-. While the shells were being prepared for the vote, a 
peasant approached Aristides, and asked him to write the name of Aristides on 
the shell. " Has Aristides ever injured you?" he ventured to ask. " Oh no," said the 
peasant; " I do not even know him, but I am tired of hearing him called The JusV 



106 Ancient History. 



remarked by historians that for two or three generations the 
poverty of his descendants was a subject of notice.* 

38. Oi'mon, son of Miltiades, succeeded Aristides in the 
leadership at Athens. He gained a splendid victory over the 
Persians at the Eu-rym'e-don Eiver, but afterward 
gave offense to the Athenians by favoring the 



Cimon, 



Spartans. He was, accordingly, banished, through the con- 
trivance of Per'i-cles, who by this means gained a position of 
eminence at Athens which he held for thirty years. Pericles 
was a brilliant orator and statesman, and his ad- 
ministration was the most splendid the Athenians 



Pericles. 



ever had. During the '^ Age of Pericles," art and literature 
flourished, and the city was embellished with the most mag- 
nificent edifices. Among these, the temple of Minerva, called 
the Parthenon, erected on the A-crop'o-lis,f may claim pre- 
eminence for beauty and artistic excellence. 

39. Cimon, after a few years, was recalled from exile, and 
served in the war against the Persians. He died during 
the siege of Citium {sish'e-um), in Cyprus. | The 
Athenians soon after gained another victory over 
the Persians, which finally brought this long war 



End of 
Persian war. 



to an end (449 B.C.). Athens gave up to Persia Cyprus and 
Egypt, while Persia acknowledged the independence of the 
Greek cities in Asia Minor. 

* "Near a century and a half afterward, a poor man, a descendant of the just 
Aristides, was to be seen at Athens carrying a mysterious tablet, and obtaining his 
scanty fee of two oboli [pence] for interpreting the dreams of the passers-by."— 
Groie. 

t Athens, anciently called Cecro'pia, from its founder Cecrops, was originally 
built on the summit of a high rock, from which it expanded into the great city of 
Athens. The ancient city was afterward called the Acropolis, or Upper City, and 
here stood many beautiful buildings, besides the Parthenon. [See cut, page 99.] 

X Cimon was not only a man of brilliant talent, both as a general and a states- 
man, but possessed that generous, affable disposition, and kind and courteous 
demeanor, that was calculated to win the affections of the people. It is said he 
threw his gardens open to the public, and kept a table constantly laid for any one 
who chose to dine at it. He has been styled "the last of the Greeks whose spirit 
and boldness defeated the armies of the barbarians." In 460 B.C., he gained three 
victories over the Persians in a single day. 



Greece and Macedonia. 107 

SECTION V. 

Fourth Period. 

From the Close of the Persian War to the Bise of Macedon, 449-358 B.C. 

40. After the repulse of the Persians, there had been dis- 
cord and war among the Grecian states. The disgrace of Pau- 
sanias, followed by the Confederacy of Delos, 
impaired the influence of Sparta and strengthened 
that of Athens; and that state took the lead during 



Inter-state 
wars. 



Height of 
Athenian glory. 



the remainder of the Persian war. Sparta was also disabled by 
the revolt of the Helots (464 B.C.), which occupied her atten- 
tion for nearly ten years. [See page 89. ] Argos, taking advan- 
tage of this, claimed the leadership of Greece, and Athens 
made an alliance with that state against Sparta. Several of 
the states, jealous of the Athenian power, formed a league 
against it; but Athens gained a great victory over the allied 
fleet. 

41. The administrations of Cimon and Pericles mark 
especially the period of the greatest glory of Athens. This 
was, in part, the fruit of the ability of Themis- 
tocles and the wisdom and integrity of Aristides; 
but it needed the genius of Pericles to give a 
finishing stroke to the work. Among his great works was 
the completion of the '^long walls," which connected Athens 
with her port, Piraeus. He was distinguished not only for 
eloquence and literary taste, but for the highest artistic cul- 
ture. On his death-bed he remarked to his friends that his 
greatest consolation was, that none of his fellow-citizens had 
been compelled, through any act of his, to put on a mourn- 
ing-robe.* 

* To every student of Grecian history, Pericles must ever appear as its central 
figure. His form and manner and outward appearance are all well known. His 
aspect was stern, almost forbidding, repelling rather than inviting intimacy; and 
this, with his majestic stature and massive head, silvered over with the marks of 



108 Ancient History. 



42. Sparta made an effort to check the growing power of 
Athens; but Athenian arms were triumphant, and Pericles 
concluded a peace with Sparta for five years (451 
B.C.). Only four years later, Athens received a 
severe blow, in the rebellion of Boeotia, followed by 



Strife between 

Athens 

and Sparta. 



a serious defeat at Oor-o-ne'a (447 B.C.). At the close of the 
five years' peace, Sparta renewed her efforts to destroy her 
rival, and Athens was compelled to make concessions, which 
led to a thirty years' peace (445 B.C.). But this treaty, as we 
shall see, was not fully observed, owing to the rivalship and 
deadly animosity of Athens and Sparta. 

The Peloponnesian War. 

43. The struggle that now commenced, known as the 
Peloponnesian War, extended over the greater part of the 
Grecian world, and lasted twenty-seven years (431-404 B.C.). 
It was not only a war between rival states, but a *' war of 
races;" for, on one side, the Ionian Greeks made common 
cause with Athens, as the Dorians took the side 
of Sparta. It was, moreover, a war of principles, 
since Athens was the representative of democracy. 



Athens and 
Sparta. 



and Sparta of oligarchy. Athens was chiefly a maritime 
power; Sparta's strength lay in her disciplined armies. The 
former's influence chiefly prevailed on the eastern side of 
Greece and in Asia; Sparta's, on the western side and in 
Italy and Sicily. Athens assumed the position of mistress of 
an empire she had for fifty years been building up; Sparta 



age even from his fiftieth year, excited something like awe in the beholder. The 
most stately resei-ve reigned through his whole life. Never were his features 
seen to relax into laughter, and only twice in his long career did they melt 
into tears. During that long period he never accepted but once an invitation to 
dinner. He was in the habit of writing out carefully all his speeches, but the 
effect of his delivery seems to have been overwhelming. It was sometimes com- 
pared to the thunder and lightning of the Olympian Jove, whom in majesty and 
dignity he himself resembled. Such is the picture we have of this roost remark- 
ably man, 



Greece and Macedonia. 109 

professed to be only the leader of a confederacy formed to 
liberate Greece from the oppressive yoke of the Athenians. 

44. The immediate cause of the war was a difficulty 
between Corinth and Cor-cy'ra, one of her colonies; for, 
because Athens took sides with the latter, the 
Dorian Confederacy accused her of violating the 
terms of the thirty years' peace, and a Spartan 



Cause of the 
war. 



army was sent to invade Attica (431 B.C.). Unable, with his 
few allies, to contend against the superior military power of 
the Spartans, Pericles pursued the policy of keep- 
ing within the city, and sent his numerous fleet 



First steps. 



to ravage the enemies' coasts. A dreadful plague at this 
time broke out in Athens, causing the death of thousands. 
Pericles himself fell a victim to it (429 B.C.).* 

45. The most noted events in the early part of the war 
were the revolt of Lesbos from Athens, and the brave defense 
of Plataea against the Spartans. The flower of 
the Spartan army having been blockaded by the 



Early events. 



Athenian fleet at Sphac-te'ri-a, the Sj)artans applied to the 
Athenians for peace, which, through the influence of Cle'on, 
a low and noisy demagogue who had succeeded 
Pericles in the leadership of the popular assem- 



Cleon. 



blies, was refused. Si)hacteria was afterward attacked, and 
the Spartans compelled to surrender. The Athenians were 

severely defeated by the Boeotians at De'li-um, i 

and a short time afterward lost their empire in I 

Thrace by the battle of Am-phip'o-lis, in which Bras'i-das, 

a distinguished Spartan leader, defeated Cleon, the Athenian, 



* This dreadful pestilence commenced in Ethiopia, passed through Libya, and 
crossed the Mediterranean Sea to Greece. The sufferers were afflicted with an 
intolerable thirst, and many dragged themselves to the fountains and then fell 
dead, with none to bury them. It was midsummer, and not only was every house 
occupied, but many families were crowded together in stifling huts, where they 
died in heaps. The very temples were filled with the dead. The Peloponnesian 
army, after laying waste the vale of Attica for forty days, becoming panic-stricken 
at the pestilence, hastened homeward, 



110 Ancient History. 



both generals being slain. This terminated the first period 
of the war; for, through the influence of Nicias 
{nish'e-as), the successor of Oleon, peace was 



Amphipolis. 



made with Sparta. 

46. There was, however, only a brief cessation of hostili- 
ties. Al-ci-bi'a-des, a handsome and talented but dissolute 
pupil of the great philosopher Soc'ra-tes, per- 
suaded Argos to renew the war. He then in- 



Alcibiades. 



duced the Athenians to send an expedition against Syracuse, 
to the command of which himself and Nicias were assigned. 
But Alcibiades, being accused of committing an act of great 
outrage and impiety, was recalled, and was condemned to 
death. He, however, escaped, and went over to Sparta. 
Nicias suffered a most disastrous defeat, losing 
one of the finest armaments that Athens had ever 



equipped (413 B.C.). This terminated what is regarded as the 
second period of the war, during which there was a nominal 
observance of the peace, each rival refraining from direct at- 
tacks on the other's territories. 

47. Alcibiades, acting in the interest of Sparta, went to 
Ionia, and raised a revolt against Athens; but finding the 
Spartan generals hostile to him, he took refuge 
with the Persian Satrap, Tis-sa-pher'nes. His 
old feeling of patriotism returning, he made 



victories of 
Alcibiades. 



overtures to the Athenian army at Samos, and was made their 
general. He soon gained some brilliant naval victories 
over the Spartans, and was recalled to Athens 
with great enthusiasm and joy; but, after an 



Defeat. 



unfortunate defeat, he was again driven into exile (407 b.c.).= 



* He retired to Asia, where, through the influence of Lysander, he was assassi- 
nated by the Persians, in 404 B.C. With such resplendent and versatile talents, 
Alcibiades might have shed glory upon himself and his country; but he was "a 
slave to every passion," and plunged into every excess. He was distinguished as 
an orator, a statesman, and a general; and possessed of vast riches. Socrates 
greatly loved him, and at one time saved his life by carrying him off the battle- 
field. This favor Alcibiades is said to have reciprocated by saving the life of his 



Greece and Macedonia. 



IIJ 



Such was the fury of the Athenians because of this defeat 
that they unjustly ordered six of their generals to be put to 
death for alleged neglect of duty. 

48. The chief command was then given to Co'non. 
Though an able officer, he allowed himself to be surprised 
by the Spartan general Ly-san'der, at a place 
called ^'gos-pot'a-mos, on the Hellespont, and 



Conorv 



nearly all the fleet was destroyed (405 B.C.). Lysander, fol- 
lowing up his victory, the next year proceeded to 
Athens, captured the city, and thus ended this 



Lysander. 



long war. For a minute account of these events we are 
indebted to the historians Thu-cyd'i-des and Xen'o-phon. 
49. Athens was thus driven to the most humiliating sub- 
mission. She was compelled to de- 
stroy her port, to agree i 

to undertake no military ^"^ Athens" °^ 

enterprise, except under I 

the command of Sparta, and also to 
consent to the abolition of her popu- 
lar government, accepting in its 
stead the rule of thirty magistrates, 
styled afterward, from their cruel 
and oppressive measures, the Thirty 
Tyrants. While it lasted, 
this was truly the '^ reign 




Socrates. 



Thirty Tyrants. 



of terror" in Athens. But the democratic government was 
soon restored through the courage and patriotism of Thras- 
y-bu'lus, by whom and his associates, after capturing the 
fortress of Phy'le, near Athens, the tyrants were expelled 
(403 B.C.). 

50. A short time after this, perished, by an unjust sen- 
tence of the Athenian judges, at the age of seventy, Socrates, 



teacher. "If he was not altogether worthy to be the preserver of the Athenian 
p:reatness, he merited the honor of casting the last rays of glory over it, and having 
his fall forever identified with its destruction." 



112 Ancient History. 



the most virtuous and illustrious of all the ancient philoso- 
phers. Accused of irreligion, and of corrupting the youth 
of Athens by teaching false doctrine, he defended 
himself with great ability and courage; but he 



Socrates. 



gave offense to the judges by not supplicating their mercy. 
He spent the interval of thirty days between his condemna- 
tion and death in tranquil discourse with his disciples; and 
having drunk the cup of hemlock,* with a firm and cheerful 
countenance, amid his weeping friends, died with perfect 
composure, expressing to the last his belief in an immortality 
beyond the grave (399 B c.).f His most eminent disciples 
were Plato and Xenophon, from whom we derive our knowl- 
edge of his doctrines, since he himself committed nothing to 
writing. \ 



* "The Athenians were humane in their executions. They took pains to ascer- 
tain the most easy and gentle mode of death, as Xenophon points out in his 
Apologia; and on this account poisoning with liemlock was emj^loyed. Even the 
executioner, who handed the cup of poison to Socrates, shed tears; for lie saw his 
magnanimity, and felt his innocence. It lias been remarked that In their execu- 
tions the Athenians were far more merciful than the modern Christian nations."— 
Mahaffi/s Social Life in Greece. 

+ Socrates was pronounced by the Delphic Oracle " the wisest of men." This, 
he at one time remarked, seemed to be true, because "he knew that he knew 
nothing, while other men, he found, did not even know that." It has been said 
that " his uninspired wisdom made the nearest approach to the divine doctrines 
of the Gospel." One of his disciples said to him when in prison, "How sad it is 
that thou shouldst die Innocent!" "What!" he replied, "would you have me die 
guilty?" To the last he taught the Christian principle that " it is better to forgive 
injuries than to avenge them." 

X When Socrates was in middle age, there seemed to come to him a call— he 
said he heard a voice— bidding him to devote himself to the instruction of his 
fellow-men ; and Avith a devotion unparalleled in all pagan history, he obeyed it. 
From that time, for thirty years, neglecting all other occupations, he applied 
himself to the duty imposed upon him. He was ever at his post,— in the public 
walks, at the gymnasia, in the market-place, wherever men congregated, there he 
stood, ready to talk with any one who would listen, young or old, rich or poor, 
never accepting fee or reward. His singular appearance attracted the attention 
of all ; the repulsive features, unwieldy figure, naked feet, rough threadbare attire, 
sometimes caused laughter, sometimes disgust. But those who stopped to listen 
soon became interested, then spell-bound, at the wonderful power of his logic, the 
beauty of his speech, the elevation and originality of his sentiments, and the 
keenness of his wit: and while they felt they knew less than they had thought 
they did, they invariably desired to learn more. 



Greece and Macedonia. 



113 



61. A short time after the close of the Peloponnesian war, 
the Greek soldiers being unemployed, a large number (about 
14,000), under a Spartan leader, named Ole-ar'- 
clius, entered into the service of Cyrus, sur- 
named the Younger, a Persian prince, and the 
brother of the reigning king, Artaxerxes II. 



Expedition of 
Cyrus. 



His object was 

declared to be an attack upon the Pisidians, but his real design 
Avas to deprive his brother of the throne of Persia. They 
marched to Cu-nax'a, near Babylon, where an immense army 
of 900,000 Persians engaged the forces of Cyrus, consisting of 




30 East Irom Lonaon. 40 



300,000 besides the Grecian mercenaries. The latter gained 
a complete victory; bat Cyrus, in a rash attempt to slay his 
brother, was himself killed, and the expedition was aban- 
doned (401 B.C.). 

52. On their retreat, the Greek leaders were drawn into a 
conference with the Persians, and treacherously 
put to death. Xenophon, who had been a volun- 
teer in the expedition, was then chosen com 



Retreat of the 
Ten Thousand. 



mander; and the retreat was continued by the Greeks for a 



114 



Ancient History. 



distance of more than 1500 miles, amid incredible hardships 
from cold, hunger, and the constant assaults of their enemies. 
They at last reached the Euxine, when they found their 
numbers reduced to about 10,000. This celebrated expedi- 
tion, as well as the retreat which closed it, forms the subject 
of perhaps the most interesting work of Xenophon (the 
An-ab'a-sis). He afterward, with the same forces, entered 
the service of a Thracian king, and subsequently assisted the 
Spartans in Asia Minor against the Persians.* 

63. In this war with the Persians, A-ges-i-la'us, the Spartan 
king, gained several important vic- 
tories, but was suddenly recalled 
to defend his coun- 
try against a powerful 



Agesilaus. 



league, consisting of Argos, Cor- 
inth, Athens, and Thebes, formed 
to attack her. The confederate 
army was, however, defeated by 
Agesilaus in the battle of Oor-o- 
ne'a; but, about the same time, the 
Spartan fleet was almost entirely 
destroyed at Cnidus {ni'dus) by 
Co'non, the Athenian (394 B.C.). 
By this victory the Athenians regained the naval supremacy 
which they had lost at ^gospotamos. 

54. The Grecian states being thus at war with one another, 
each party contended for the alliance and aid of the Persians. 
Oonon, who by means of Persian gold had been enabled to 




Xenophon. 



* The execution of Socrates took place during the absence of Xenophon from 
Athens; and, upon his return to his native city, he found that a decree of banish- 
ment had been issued against himself. It was then that he went to Asia Minor, 
and joined the Spartan army. The LacedEemonians, at the close of the war, gave 
him the little town of Scillus, on the border of Ehs, where he lived for some time 
with his wife and two sons. Though invited to return to Athens, he never lived 
again in that city. He died at Corinth in the ninetieth j'ear of his age. Xenophon, 
as a soldier, philosopher, and writer, holds a conspicuous place in the annals of 
Greece. 



Greece mid Macedonia. 



115 



equip liis fleet and to rebuild the walls of Athens, was, 
through the machinations of Sparta, brought under sus- 
picion with the king of Persia, and thrown into prison. 
The Spartans thus obtained the alliance of the 
Persians, and tlirough their emissary, An-tal'ci-das, 
negotiated a peace by which the Greek cities of 
Asia were given up to Persian rule. This disgraceful treaty 
was ratified by the other states ^387 B.C.). 



Peace of 

Antalcidas. 



Theban war. 



65. The Spartans, having unjustly seized the citadel of 
Thebes, and held it for four years, were expelled, 
through the influence of Pelop'idas and Epami- 
non'das, two distinguished Theban patriots. This brought 
on a war between Thebes and 
Sparta, by which the former state 
rose to a great height of power 
and distinction. In the noted 
battle of Leuc'tra (371 B.C.), the 
Spartan army was defeated by 
forces much inferior in number, 
commanded by Epaminondas and 
Pelopidas; and the Peloponnesus 
was thrown open to invasion. 
Agesilaus, however, by his vigor- 
ous measures, saved Sparta from 
capture; and Epaminondas, after 
laying waste the territory of Laconia with fire and sword, 
retired from the Peninsula. The Thebans afterward again 
invaded the Peloponnesus, and in the battle of Man-ti-ne'a 
(362 B.C.) gained a great victory over the Spartans command- 
ed by Agesilaus ; but Epaminondas was mortally wounded. 
He died, as he had lived, a hero. A javelin had pierced his 
bosom; but in the agonies of death his inquiries were only for 
his country, and when told that the Thebans had triumphed, 
he exclaimed, ^^Then all is well!" and drawing the weapon 
from his breast, he immediately expired. 




Epaminondas. 



116 Ancient History. 



66. Epaminondas is justly regarded as one of the greatest 
heroes and patriots Greece ever produced. Wise in council, 
and brave and skillful in battle, an accomplished 
statesman and orator, and, what is still more, a 



Epaminondas. 



man of unswerving truth and honesty, he ij^as, during all the 
subsequent history of Greece, universally considered the best 
model for imitation. With him the influence of Thebes 
began and ended. His last advice was followed by his 
mourning countrymen, and peace was concluded before they 
departed from the Peloponnesus. Agesilaus died the next 
year, while on his return from an expedition in 
which he had engaged, though eighty years of 



Agesilaus. 



age, to assist Egypt against the Persians.* Though, perhaps, 
inferior to Epaminondas as a general, he was in wisdom and 
virtue his equal, being entirely free from the selfishness, deceit, 
and ill-faith that too often disgraced the Spartan character. He 
was small, mean-looking, and lame in one foot ; and on that 
account objection had been made to his accession, for the 
oracle had warned Sparta of evils to occur during ^^ a lame 
sovereignty. " 

57. For more than sixty years, covering the period of the 
Peloponnesian and Theban wars, the Greek states had been 
wasting their strength in these constant struggles 
with each other. While, had they been united, 
they could have defied the hostilities of every 



Greek 
dissensions. 



other nation, they had now reached a state of exhaustion that 
made them an easy prey to the first ambitious potentate who 
might plan their conquest. Such a personage now appeared 
on the stage of history in Philip, king of Macedon; and the 
narration of Grecian affairs now becomes merged into that of 
Macedonia, just emerging into prominence. 

* "Upon his arrival in Egypt, all the great officers of the kingdom came to pay 
their court to him; but when they beheld no pomp or grandeur of appearance, but 
only a little old man in mean attire seated on the grass by the sea-side, they could 
scarcely conceal their contempt, saying it reminded them of the old fable of the 
mountain in labor that brought forth a mouse."— PZwtorc/i. 




30 Longitude Eaf<t 35 of GrOfiiwicli 10 



4. 




Macedonian Supremacy. 117 



SECTION VI. 
Fifth Period. 

MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 

From 358 B.C. to 301 B.C. 

68. Previous to the time of Philip, Macedo'nia occupied 
only an obscure position among the nations of the world, 
though it had existed as a kingdom for about 
four centuries. Being detained as a hostage at 



Philip. 



Thebes, Philip had enjoyed the benefit of a thorough educa- 
tion under Epaminondas; and when, at the age of twenty- 
four, he ascended the throne (359 B.C.), he possessed all the 
accomplishments of a skillful soldier and statesman; while his 
great talent for artifice made him especially suited for the 
part of a wily politician. 

59. Greece, at that time, presented an excellent field for 
these peculiar talents. Torn to pieces by internal dissen- 
sions, possessing no national union, the states were 
constantly forming temporary leagues against each 
other, and preparing themselves for the attack of 



Condition 

of the 

Grecian states. 



some crafty and powerful invader. Athens, distinguished 
for her progress in literature and art, was very much weak- 
ened by luxury. Sparta had become corrupted and enervated 
by the gold gained in her conquests, and though still war- 
like, was actuated only by the meanest sentiments of jealousy 
and revenge toward her sister states. The other states were 
only influential in promoting, by petty disputes, the general 
anarchy. 

60. Philip commenced his artful encroachments on the 
liberties of Greece by his intrigues in connection with the 
affairs of Athens, which, in 358 B.C., had reached 
the culminating point of the second period of her 



Social war. 



glory .» and prosperity. Unfortunately, at this time a dis- 



118 Ancient History, 

astrous war broke out, caused by the revolt of some of her 
maritime allies, and leading to what is known in history as 
the Social War, that is, the war of the states. This lasted 
about three years, and ended in the defeat of Athens, thus 
securing the independence of the more important of the revolt- 
ed allies (355 B.C.). It was during this period that Philip, 
taking advantage of the troubles of Athens, seized Am-phi^D'o- 
lis, and established a military station at Phi-lip'pi. 

61. Soon afterward another war broke out in Greece, 
caused by the Phocians, who, instead of paying a fine imposed 
by the Amphictyonic Council for having occupied 
and cultivated a tract of land devoted to the 



Sacred war. 



Delphian Apollo, invaded the sacred territory, and surprised 
and took Delphi itself. This brought on what is called the 
Sacred War (357 B.C.), in which most of the states took up 
arms against the Phocians, while the latter succeeded in 
forming an alliance with Athens and Sparta. Thebes was 
the chief enemy of the Phocians, and at last, to satisfy her 
revenge, she invited the aid of Philip, and thus brought on 
the destruction of Grecian independence. For Thebes hated 
Phocis, because the latter had taken sides with the Spartans 
during the first part of the Theban war; and she succeeded 
in getting a decision of the Amphictyonic Council against 
the Phocians. The latter, being utterly unable to pay the 
fine, were compelled to fight; and, in self-defense, seized the 
Delphic treasures to pay the expenses of the war. They thus 
prolonged the struggle for eleven years. 

62. Gladly embracing the opportunity of interfering, Philip 
attacked and defeated the army of the Phocians in Thessaly, and 
took and destroyed Olynthus. He then marched 
into Greece, and after taking possession of Phocis, 
occupied Delphi. He next assembled the Am- 



Measures of 
Philip. 



phictyons, and procured a decree that the towns of the 
Phocians should be destroyed, and that their two votes 
should be transferred to Macedon, thus obtaining adn^ssion 



Macedonian Supremacy. 11^ 

himself to the Council. Thus ended the Sacred War (346 B.C.), 
the effect of which was to make Macedon the leading state 
of Greece. 

63. Meanwhile, the great Athenian orator, De-mos'the-nes, 
had endeavored, by his spfendid eloquence, to arouse his 
countrymen against the crafty designs of Philip; 
but, although the latter persisted in his schemes 
of conquest, it was not until 338 B.C. that any 



Subjugation of 
Greece. 



effort was made to oppose his progress. In that year a battle 
was fought at Chae-ro-ne'a, in which Philip disastrously de- 
feated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes, and thus 
completed the subjugation of all Greece. He, however, left 
to the states a nominal independence in their local affairs, he 
himself controlling all measures affecting the general interests. 
64. Philip next convened a congress of the Grecian states 
at Corinth, and obtained from it a formal declaration of war 
against Persia, and the appointment of himself as 
generalissimo of all Greece. He then returned 



Death of Philip. 



home to prepare an expedition for the conquest of that 
country, which he had for some time meditated. Before, 
however, these preparations were completed, he was assassi- 
nated by Pausanias, a young Macedonian noble (336 B.C.); and 
Alexander, his son, afterward called the Great, ascended the 
throne, being then only twenty years of age, but thoroughly 
educated, partly under the celebrated philosopher, Aristotle 
{ar-is-tot'I).* Thebes, having received a report 
of Philip's death, and thinking the opportun- 
ity a good one to regain her independence. 



Destruction of 
Thebes. 



revolted; but Alexander, with characteristic promptitude, 
marched against the city, took it, and razed it to the ground, 

* This distinguished philosopher was born at Stagira, an island near the Mace- 
donian coast, B.C. 384. At the age of seventeen he went to Athens and studied 
philosophy in the school of Plato. He afterward established a school of his own 
in the grove called Lyceum, which received the name of the Peripatetic School, 
because Aristotle delivered his lectures while walking about (from the Greek word 
peripatein, to walk about). He died in Chalcis, Eubcea, at the age of sixty -three. 



120 Ancient History. 



selling its inhabitants to the number of 30,000 into slavery. 
Thus a general rising was prevented (335 B.C.).* 

Conquests of Alexander the Great. 

65. After making this terrible*example of Thebes, he set out 
on the expedition planned by his father, leaving An-tip'a-ter 

to administer the government of Macedon and 

Greece (334 B.C.). In the spring of that year, he 
passed the Hellespont with an army of 35,000 



Persian 
expedition. 



men, encountering no opposition from the Persians, who were 
hesitating as to the plan of opposing his march. The wise 
suggestions of Memnon, the Rhodian, then in the 
service of the Persian monarch, to send the fleet 
against Macedon, was rejected; and a battle was 



Battle of the 
Granicus. 



fought on the banks of the Gra-ni'cus River, in which Alex- 
ander gained a great victory, enabling him to overrun Asia 
Minor without opposition. 

66. The next year he defeated a vast army, commanded 
by Darius, the Persian monarch, at Is'sus. So complete 
was the rout that Darius fled in dismay, leav- 
ing his mother and wife to the mercy of the 



Battle of Issus. 



victor. These Alexander ordered to be treated with the 
greatest respect and attention. He then advanced toward 
the south, and all the cities of Phoenicia surrendered to him, 

* " A general assembly of the Greeks being held at the Isthmus of Corinth, they 
came to a resolution to send their quotas with Alexander against the Persians, and 
he was unanimously elected captain-general. Many statesmen and philosophers 
came to congratulate him on the occasion ; and he hoped that Diogenes of Sinope, 
who then lived at Corinth, would be of the number. Finding, however, that he 
made but little account of Alexander, and that he preferred the enjoyment of his 
leisure in a part of the suburbs, called Cranium, the king went to see him. 
Diogenes happened to be lying in the sun ; and at the approach of so many people, 
he raised himself up a little, and fixed his eyes upon Alexander. The king 
addressed him in an obliging manner, and asked him, ' If there was anything he 
could serve him in?' 'Only stand a little out of my sunshine,' said Diogenes. 
Alexander, we are told, was struck with such surprise at finding himself so little 
regarded, and saw something so great in that carelessness, that, while his courtiers 
were ridiculing the philosopher as a monster, he said, ' K I wei-e not Alexander, 
I should wish to be Diogenes.' ''"'—Plutarch, 



n^ 



Ancient History. 



except Tyre, the siege of which delayed him seven months. 

He built a pier across the strait, half a mile wide, which 
sejoarated the city from the mainland, and thus 
having gained access to the walls, he battered 

them to 2^ieces and took the city by storm (332 b.c). No 



Taking of Tyre. 



mercy was shown to the wretched inhabitants, eight thousand 
of whom are said to have been massacred; and the remainder, 
numbering at least 30,000, were sold into slavery. 

67. In the mean time, Darius solicited peace, offering 
to cede to Alexander the western half of the empire, and 
to give him his daughter 
in marriage. This, how- 
ever, Alexander promptly 

refused, and 

continued his 

march toward 



Egyptian 
expedition. 




Battering Ram. 



Egypt, capturing Gii'za on 
the way. Passing through 
Egypt, he penetrated the 
Lib'yan desert, and j^aid 
a visit to the temple of 
Jupiter Am'mon. He also 
founded in Egypt the city 
of Alexandria, which for many centuries afterward was the 

first commercial city in the world, being the 

grand emporium of Europe, Africa, and India. 

This was the first city founded by Alexander and 
named after him. He subsequently founded no less than 
seventeen cities in different parts of Asia, to each of which 
he gave the name of Alexandria. 

68. Turning again to the east, he crossed the Euphrates, 
and prepared for the battle which was to decide the fate of 
1 Persia. On the plain of Gau-ga-me'la, a few 

miles from Ar-be'la, Darius drew up his immense 
army, consisting of over a million Persians, which, with 



Alexandria 
founded. 



Battle of Arbela. 



Macedoiiian Supremacy. 



123 



40,000 foot and 7,000 horse, Alexander, after a brief engage- 
ment, entirely defeated and put to flight (332 B.C.). Pro- 
ceeding to Babylon, he entered the city in triumph, having 
made himself, at the age of twenty-five, master of the whole 
of Western Asia, together with Egypt. 

69. He next advanced to Su'sa, a treasure-city of the 
Persians, which surrendered without resistance. Here were 

obtained gold and silver 
amounting to fifty mil- 




Taking of 

Susa 
and Persepolis. 



lion dollars, 
and, what was 
still more in- 
teresting to the Greeks, 
the spoils which Xerxes 
had carried off from 
Greece. Per-sep'o-lis,the 
real capital of the Per- 
sian kings, was the next 
city occupied by the inva- 
der; and here, it is said, 
the treasure captured 
amounted to 120 million dollars. Darius, in the mean while, 
had fled to Ecbatana, and thither Alexander went 
in pursuit, w^iich he continued with great rapid- 



Death of Darius. 



ity, until he reached Bactria, where he found that the Persian 
monarch had been seized and put to death by the satrap of 
that province. Alexander, still pursuing his career of con- 
quest, defeated the Scythians on the banks of the I-ax'ar-tes, 
and took possession of Mar-a-can'da (now Samar- 
cand), the capital of Sog-di-a'na, where he mar- 
ried a Bactrian princess, named Kox-a'na (328 



Further 
conquests. 



B.C.). Here too it was that, at a banquet, in a fit of anger, he 
murdered his friend Cli'tus, who had saved his life at the battle 
of the Granicus. He next invaded India, defeated Po'rus, 
the king of that country, on the banks of the Hy-das'pes, and 



124 Ancient History. 



after a brief rest, pushed on to the Hyph'a-sis (the modern 
Sut'lej), when the soldiers, worn out with their toils, posi- 
tively refused to proceed any farther. He then gave orders 
to return. [See map, page 121.] 

70. Having built a fleet, he sailed down the Indus to its 
mouth; and then, leaving Ne-ar'chus to pursue the voyage 
of exploration, he marched through the burning 
desert of Ge-dro'sia to Persepolis, and thence by 



way of Susa and Ecbatana to Babylon, where he indulged in 
various schemes of further conquest. But, as he was about 
to set out on a campaign in Arabia, he was seized with a fever, 
said to have been occasioned by intemperance; 
and after eleven days' illness, he expired (325 
B.C.). On his death-bed, being asked by one of 



Death of 
Alexander. 



his generals to whom he desired to leave his throne, he 
answered: "To the worthiest among you; but I am afraid 
my obsequies will be celebrated with bloody hands." He, 
however, gave his ring to Per-dic'cas. 

71. Of all the conquerors of antiquity, Alexander was, 
without doubt, the most enterprising and renowned. The 
splendor of his military achievements should not, 
however, blind us to the moral depravity which 



Character. 



could sacrifice, without a single pang of remorse, so many 
thousands of his fellow-creatures, merely to gratify a thirst 
for vainglory. This insatiable desire seems to have been 
unmixed with any wish to benefit his subjects or mankind, 
although he founded cities that promised to be useful to 
him in carrying out his ambitious views, and in perpetuating 
his memory. In the hands of Providence, however, he was 
undoubtedly an instrument of good; since, by his conquests, 
the two continents were brought into closer communication 
with each other, and the language, literature, and arts of 
Greece were carried into the East. 

72. In the mean time, the Spartans, under their king Agis, 
had made a vigorous effort, in common with most of the 



Macedoiiian Supremacy. 



125 



Agis. 



other Peloponnesian states, to throw off the yoke of Macedon; 

but they were defeated with great shuighter by 

Aiitipater, Agis being shiin in the battle (331 

B.C.). Athens took no part in the struggle; but under the 

influence of Pho'cion, illustrious for the wisdom 

and moderation of his counsels, as well as for his 

stern republican simplicity and honesty, i3rosecuted 



Conduct of 
Athens. 



the orators who had been active against the Macedonian rule, 
and because they had been found guilty of bribery drove them 




into exile. Among these was Demosthenes. When, however, 
the news arrived of the death of Alexander, the city of Athens 
gave way to the most excessive demonstrations of joy, 
and Phocion's party lost all their influence. 

73. In an expedition under Le-os'the-nes, the Athenians 
and their allies gained some important victories over Anti- 
pater, near La'mia, a fortified town near the 
border of Thessaly; but Antii)ater being joined 
by Crat'e-rus, one of the ablest of Alexander's generals, with 



Lamian war. 



126 Ancient History. 



a considenible force from Asia, entirely defeated them in 
Tliessaly, and prevented any further resistance to the Mace- 
donian authority (322 B.C.). Athens was compelled to give 
up her orators, including Demosthenes, who had been recalled 
from exile during the war. The latter, however, escaped, 
but was finally compelled to take poison in order to prevent 
being captured by his pursuers; while the others were cruelly 
put to death.* Thus ended what was called the Lamian War; 
and the defeat riveted the yoke of Macedonia upon Greece 
more firmly than ever, f 

Alexander's Successors. 

74. After the death of Alexander, the great Macedonian 
Empire, which had been formed by his genius and valor, fell 
to pieces, as he left no successor able to control 
the restless ambition and rivalry of his generals. 
At first, his half-brother, Philip, and his infant son 



Disposition of 
tlie empire. 



by Roxana were declared partners of the throne, while differ- 
ent parts of the empire were assigned to the generals, who 
were to rule as satraps; but Perdiccas was to 
act as regent. The latter was shortly afterward 
suspected of a design to usurp the throne, and a 



Death of 
Perdiccas. 



league was formed against him by An-tig'o-nus, Ptol'e-my, 

* Demosl henes retired to the island of Calauria, near the coast of Argolis, and 
took refuge in the temple of Neptune from the emissaries of Antipater. He died 
at the age of about sixty years. When he commenced to speak in public, his 
impediment of speech, weakness of voice, and awkwardness of manner made 
him an object of ridicule ; but all these difficulties he overcame by intense effort 
and application, and became the greatest orator of his own or perhaps any other 
time. He saw through the designs of Philip from the first, and pronounced his 
most brilliant orations in exposing them. These were called " Philippics," because 
they were delivered against Philip. 

+ Leosthenes was a brave and skillful general, and had he not been killed 
during the siege of Lamia, in which Antipater shut himself up after his defeat, 
the war might have resulted differently. Besides, the dissensions m Athens pre- 
vented the sending of reinforcements to the army. Leosthenes was an orator as 
well as a general; and it was to him, on the occasion of one of his harangues, that 
Phocion said: ''Young man, thy words are like the cypress, tall and large, but 
they bear no fruit." He was a vigorous supporter of the party of Demosthenes. 



Macedonian Supremacy. 127 

and Crat'e-rus. A war ensued, during which Perdiccas was 
assassinated by his own troops (321 B.C.). Antipater was 
then made regent, and the empire was again divided. 

75. Antipater died three years afterward, at the age of 
eighty, leaving the regency to Pol-y-sper'chon, a veteran 
general of Alexander. This displeased Cas-san'- 
der, Antipater's son, who had expected to succeed 



Renewal of war. 



his father, and kindled a war of several years between the two 
generals, which resulted in Oassander's success. During this 
war Cassander placed the administration at Athens under 
De-me'tri-us Pha-le'reus, a distinguished Athenian orator, 
statesman, and writer, who ruled the city for ten years with 
so much popularity that the Athenians raised three hundred 
and sixty brazen statues to his honor. A¥ar having arisen 
between Antigonus and the other generals, Athens surren- 
dered to Deme'trius Po-li-or-ce'tes (the Totu7i- Taker), the son 
of Antigonus. Phalereus, who, by his dissipated habits, had 
lost his popularity, was compelled to flee, and all his statues 
were thrown down except one (307 B.C.).* 

76. The war against Antigonus, which continued for 
nearly fifteen years (from 315 B.C.), was brought to a close by 
a decisive battle fought near Ipsus, in Phrygia 
(301 B.C.). Antigonus was defeated, and died of 



Battle of Ipsus. 



his wounds. This event nearly closed the long series of wars 
which followed the death of Alexander, and which proved his 
sagacity and foresight when he remarked that his obsequies 
would be celebrated by bloody hands. During these wars the 
whole of his relations, including his rnother, Olympias, and 
his wife and son, were successively put to death, f 

* Demetrius found a place of refuge at the court of Ptolemy in Alexandria, 
where he lived upward of twenty years. His talents were of great service to the 
Egyptian monarch; and it is stated that it was by his advice that the famous 
museum and Alexandrian library were founded. Demetrius wrote many valuable 
treatises, but none of them are now extant. He was the last of the great orators 
of Greece. 

t Roxana and the young Alexander were put to death by order of Cassander, 
after a treaty of peace, made in 311 b.c, one of the articles of which was, that 



128 Ancient History. 



77. A more permanent partition of the empire followed 
the battle of Ipsus. Greece and Macedonia were assigned to 
Oassander; Egypt, to Ptolemy, who had been 
previously in possession of it; the greatest part 
of Asia Minor, to Ly-sim'a-chus ; and western 



Partition of the 
empire. 



Asia, including the whole country from the coast of Syria to 
the Euphrates, to Seleucus. The latter founded on the river 
0-ron'tes a new capital of his empire, which he named An- 
tioch, in honor of his father, An-ti'o-chus. 

78. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, who had retreated 
from Ipsus, still continued the struggle. He proceeded to 

Greece, but the Athenians refused to receive him. 

After forming an alliance with Seleucus, he again 



appeared before Athens, which, after a long siege, he cap- 
tured, expelling the tyrannical governor whom Oassander had 
appointed (295 B.C.). The Athenians were greatly moved by 
his noble forgiveness and lenity; for, instead of the dreadful 
punishment which they had expected, he supplied their 
wants, and did his best to relieve the miseries occasioned by 
the long siege which they had suffered. * 

Cassander should retain his power until the prince became of age. The treaty sus- 
pended hostilities only for a few months. Olympias having engaged in a war 
against Cassander, about five years previously, was taken prisoner by him, and 
ordered to be put to death(316 B.C.). 

* Demetrius had been the friend of the Athenians, freeing them from the power 
of Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrison which had been stationed at 
Athens under Demetrius Phalereus. After the fall of Antigonus, he fled precipi- 
tately, and with his fleet and a small remnant of his army he sailed to Athens. 
Word was sent to him that the Athenians had resolved to admit no king within 
their city. His triumphant entry into Athens is thus described by Plutarch: "He 
ordei'ed all the Athenians to assemble in the theater, which he surrounded with 
his troops; and having planted his guards on each side of the stage, he came down 
through the passage by which the tragedians enter. The fears of the people, on 
his appearance, increased, but they were entirely dissipated when he began to 
speak; for neither the accent of his voice was loud, nor his expression severe. 
He complained of them in soft and easy terms, and taking them again into favor, 
made them a present of a hundred thousand measui-es of wheat, and re-estal? 
lished such an administration as was most agreeable to them." 



I 



No. 5, 




Macedon and Greece. 129 

SECTION VII. 
Sixth Period. 

DIVISIONS OF THE MACEDONIAN EMFIRE. 

From 301 b.c. io the Conquest of Greece (146 B.C.). 

I. Macedon and Greece. 

79. Cassander survived the victory at Ipsus only three 
years; and at his death he left the throne to the eldest of his 
three sons, who died soon afterward. Family 
dissensions followed, by means of which Deme- 



Cassander. 



trius possessed himself of the throne (294 B.C.), and held it 
for seven years, when it was seized by Pyr'rhus, 
king of Epirns, against whom Demetrins had 



Demetrius. 



made war. The latter, attacked by both Pyrrhus and Ly- 
simachus, abandoned the Macedonian throne, and fled. 
Soon afterward, Lysimachus, after vanquishing 
Pyrrhus, obtained possession of the Macedonian 



Lysimachus. 



territories, and united them with his own (286 B.C.). Thus 
the w^hole Macedonian Empire, except Egypt, was divided 
between Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius died a captive 
at the court of the latter (283 B.C.).* 

80. The throne of Macedon was filled by Lysimachus 
about five years, when hostilities arose between him and Seleu- 
cus; and, in a battle near Sardis, the former was 
defeated and slain. This gave nearly the whole 



Seleucus. 



empire to Seleucus, thus reuniting, with the exception of 
Egypt, the whole of the dominions of Alexander. But this 
union was of short duration, for within a few weeks of his 



* "That hair-brained prince, after gaining and then losing Macedonia, plunged 
suddenly into Asia, where he hoped to win by his sword a new dominion. Unable 
to make any serious impression on the kingdom of Lysimachus, he entered 
Cilicia, and became engaged in hostilities with Seleucus, who defeated him, took 
him prisoner, and kept him in a private condition for the rest of his life."— 
Bawlinson. 



180 Ancient History, 



victory, Seleiicus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
an Egyptian prince, brother of Ar-sin'o-e, the 
wife of Seleucus. This prince, being prevented 
from succeeding to the throne of Egypt by his 



F^olemy 
Ceraunus. 



father's selection of another son, Philadelphus, had taken 
refuge at the court of Seleucus, by whom he had been pro- 
tected. 

81. The throne of Macedon was occupied by Ptolemy Ce- 
raunus but a short time; for a great migration of the Gauls 
the same year swept over Thrace and Macedonia, 
under several leaders named Belgius, Brennus, 
and others; and Ptolemy rashly opposing their 



Invasion of the 
Gauls. 



furious onset with his hastily-gathered forces, was defeated, 
and falling into the hands of his enemies was cruelly put to 
death (279 B.C.). The Gauls then passed into Greece, and 
reached Delphi, where they were repulsed with great loss. 
Some of them afterward settled on the Danube; others, in 
Thrace; while a third part passed into Asia, and settled in 
the country called, after them, Ga-la'tia.* 

82. After the death of Ptolemy, the throne of Macedon 
was occupied by Antigonus, the son of Demetrius, surnamed 
Go-na'tas, from the place of his birth. He reigned till 243 
B.C., exercising a severe rule over the Greeks, whose cities he 
governed by means of petty tyrants appointed by 
himself. This tyranny led to a noted confeder- 



Achaean league. 



acy, styled in history the " Ach^an League," it being in fact 
the revival of an ancient league which had existed among the 

* "The invasion of the Gauls is one of the most interesting events of the post 
Alexandrine history. It had permanent effects on Eastern Europe and Western 

Asia, producing among other results the new country of Galatia By the 

end of the year .280 b.c, a large mass of hungry immigrants had accumulated in 
northern Ulyria, iand in the regions about mounts Scomius and Scardus. This 
mass, in 279 b.c, rolled forward in three waves, which took three different direc- 
tions. One, under Cerethrius, took a north-easterly course against the Triballi and 
the Thracians ; another, under Brennus and Acichorius, proceeded due east 
against the Paeonians ; the third, imder a chief named Belgius, marched south-east 
and fell upon Macedonia. It was this last leader and his troops with whom 
Ptolemy Ceraunus canie jntQ (contact,''''— Rawlinson, 



Macedon and Greece. 131 

twelve chief cities of Acliaia.* It was soon joined by most of 
the important states of Greece, inchiding Athens; and, under 
its wise and patriotic leader, A-ra'tus of Sicyon {sish'e-on), 
acquired very great influence (243 B.C.). 

83. At this period, the formation of such confederacies or 
leagues became a new and striking feature in the affairs of 
Greece ; for the people began to see the result of their many dis- 
sensions, and to understand that they could curb the despotism 
of the Macedonian kings only by uniting their forces. The 
most important of these confederacies were the Achaean League, 
already mentioned, and the iEto'lian League. But 
the Spartans held to themselves. The ^tolian 



/Ctolian league. 



league was a confederation of tribes, which had gradually 
made themselves masters of Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, and some 
otlier states. The Spartans, under their celebrated kings 
A'gis and Cle-om'e-nes, attempted to regain their ancient 
simplicity of manners and military hardihood, but without 
success, t 

84. Jealousy and dissension among the Greeks prevailed 
to such an extent as to prevent all efficient resistance against 
the Macedonian power. Lideed, they were compelled to call 
in the aid of that very power against the encroachments of 
each other. Thus Aratus, having been defeated by the 
Spartans under their king Cleomenes, invoked the assistance 



* Rawlinson says: "The old confederacy of the twelve Achfean cities appears 
to have been dissolved soon after the death of Alexander, by the influence of the 
Macedonian princes, especially Cassander and Demetrius, about 300 b.c." The 
revival commenced about 280 b.c, and in abount five years was consummated. 
Tt did not, however, assume much importance till the admission of Sicyon into the 
confederacy, 251 b.c, which gave it partly the character of a general Hellenic 
union. 

+ Agis, one of the noblest characters of Spartan history, made an effort to re- 
vive the institutions of Lycurgus; and at first met with some success. But he 
excited great opposition, and his enemies brought about his condemnation and 
execution (240 b.c). Agis observing that one of his executioners was moved to 
tears, said: "Weep not for me; suffering as I do imjustly, I am happier than 
my murderers." He was the first king of Sparta that was put to death by the 
ephors. 



1B2 Ancient History. 



of Antigonus Do'son,* king of Macedon, by whom Cleomenes 
was overthrown, and compelled to flee into Egypt. 
Sparta, which had hitherto remained uncon- 



Sparta taken. 



quered, was taken by the Macedonian monarch (221 B.C. 

Aratus afterward entered into an alliance with Philip, king 
of Macedon, in a war against the ^tolians, whicli 
lasted till 217 B.C.; but having displeased Philip, 



Death of Aratus. 



he was by the orders of the latter poisoned (213 B.C.). 

85. Phil-o-poe'men, sometimes styled '^the last of the 

Greeks," succeeded Aratus in administering the affairs of the 
Achaean league. He was a man of great talents 
and virtue. In 207 B.C., he gained a great victory 



Philopoemen. 



over the Spartans, notwithstanding they were assisted by the 
Komans; and, in the general assembly of the Greeks, was 
hailed as the liberator of their country. The Romans, a few 
years after this, made war upon Philip, king of Macedon, and 
defeated him in the famous battle of Cyn-os- 
ce]3h'a-l«,f in Thessaly (197 B.C.). Philip was 
then compelled to withdraw his garrisons from 



Battle of 
Cynoscephal 



the Grecian towns; and, at the ensuing Isthmian games, the 
independence of Greece was solemnly proclaimed by the 
Romans. J This seemingly generous policy left the Greek 
states entirely under Roman protection, and by removing all 
outside pressure gave full scope for internal dissensions. The 
Achaean and ^tolian leagues were undisturbed, the one hold- 
ing the other in check. 

* Dosnn means about to give, and was applied to this king on account of his 
habit of promising but not performing. 

t Ctjnoscephnlce means dogs' heads, and was given to a range of elevated rocks 
in Thessaly, resembling in appearance the heads of dogs. It is sometimes written 
Cynocephale. 

t "Immediately after the conclusion of the treaty, followed the memorable 
scene at the Isthmian games, when it was announced to all the multitude assembled 
on that occasion, that the Romans bestowed entire freedom upon all those states 
of Greece which had been subject to Macedon. The Greeks, unable to read the 
future, and having as yet had no experience of the ambition of Rome, received 
this act with the warmest gratitude, and seemed to acknowledge the Romans in 
the character which they assumed, of protectors and deliverers of Greece." 



Kingdom of the Seleucidce. 133 



86. The yEtolians soon afterward became involved in a 
war with the Eomans, and were entirely subdued (190 B.C.). 
The Achaean league, strengthened by the fall of its great 
rival, was joined by Sparta, and under Philo- 
poemen acquired very great influence. But the 
Messenians revolted against its authority; and in 



Revolt of the 
Messenians. 



an attempt to reduce them to submission, Philopoemen was 
taken prisoner and barbarously put to death (183 B.C.). 
Mes-se'ne was, however, captured by the Achseans the next 
year, and the murderers of Philopoemen were punished. The 
historian Po-lyb'i-us sums up the character of 
this illustrious man by saying that 'Mn forty 
years, during which he played a distinguished 



Character of 
Philopoenrien. 



part in a democratic community, he never incurred the 
enmity of the people, though he always spoke with openness 
and freedom, nor ever courted popular favor by unworthy 
compliance." He was seventy years of age at the time of his 
death. 

87. The Romans, again invading Macedonia, defeated 
Per'seus, its last king, in the battle of Pyd'na (168 B.C.), and 
reduced the country to a Roman province. The 
Roman general, entering Greece, surrendered 



Battle of Pydna. 



many of its cities to the pillage of the soldiers; and no fewer 
than 150,000 of the inhabitants were captured, and sold as 
slaves. A few years later, the Romans under 
Mum'mi-us again invaded Greece, being invited 
by the Spartans, who had quarreled with the 



Final conquest 
of Greece, 



Achaeans. The last army of the latter surrendered at Corinth 
(146 B.C.), and Greece became a Roman province, under the 
name of Achaia. 

II. Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucid^. 

88. This kingdom was founded by Seleucus, surnamed 
Nicator (the Conqiieror), in 312 B.C., and lasted about two 
and a half centuries. It originally consisted of Babylonia 



134 



Ancient History, 



and the adjacent province Su-si-a'na, together with Media 
and Persia; but afterward was so extended as to 
embrace all the countries between the Euphrates 



Extent. 



and the Indus rivers, and 'from the Indian Ocean to the 
lax'-artes River. After the battle of Ipsus it was still further 
enlarged by the addition of Oappadocia, part of Phrygia, and 
Ujjper Syria. The capital was at first a city which Selucus 




Ruins of Baat^ec. 



had built on the Tigris, and named Seleucia; but it was 
afterward removed to the newly-founded city of Antioch. 
The placing of the seat of government so far 
to the west led to the loss of the eastern prov- 



Antioch. 



inces, giving rise to the formation of the Parthian and 
Bactrian kingdoms during the reign of Antiochus II. 
(261-246 B.C.).* The ancient city of Baalbec, in southern 



* " Had Babylon or Seleucia continued the seat of government, the East might 
probably have been retained; the kingdom of the Parthians might never have 
grown up. Rome, vehen she interfered with the affairs of Asia^ would have found 



Kingdom of the Seleucidce. 135 



Syria (Coele-Sjria),* rose to great splendor at this period, 
under the Greek name Heliopolis (city of the sun). Its 
ancient history is obscure; but its ruined temples and other 
edifices, built of huge blocks of stone, and other architectural 
remains, attest the magnificence of the city both in its ancient 
and Greek period. It was situated on the great caravan 
route between Babylon and Phoenicia. 

89. The rupture that subsequently occurred between Seleu- 
cus and Lysimachus, ending in the defeat of the latter, 
gave the whole of Asia Minor to the Syrian kingdom; but 
the career of Seleucus was soon afterward terminated by the 
assassin's hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus. His son 
Antiochus I. succeeded, during whose reign the 



Antiochus 1. 



Gauls overran the country, but were checked for a time by a 
great defeat which Antiochus inflicted upon them, receiving 
on that account the surname So'ter (the Savior)] but he was 
afterward defeated by them in a great battle near Ephesus, 
in which he lost his life (261 B.C.). 

90. A long list of kings succeeded, the particular history 
of whose reigns it is scarcely necessary to relate. These are 
called the Seleucidse (se-Ioo'se-de), or descend- 
ants of Seleucus, the founder of the monarchy. 



Seleucidae. 



Among them Antiochus III., surnamed '^The Great," de 
serves special mention; since his reign, which 
lasted more than thirty-six years, is, perhaps, 
the most eventful period of the history of this 



Antiochus the 
Great. 



monarchy. He checked the progress of the Parthians and 
Bactrians, restoring the extent of his territories toward India, 
drove the Egyptians out of Asia, and at one time extended 
his sway over a part of Europe. 

a great Greek empire situated beyond the Euphrates, and so almost inaccessible 
to her arms; the two civilizations would have coexisted, instead of being super- 
seded the one by the other, and the history of Asia and of the world would have 
been widely different." — Rawlinson. 

* Coele-Syria means the hollow Syria, so Called from its situation in the valley 
between the Lib'anus and the Anti-Lib'anus chain of mountains. 



136 Ancient History, 

91. He, however, became embroiled with the Romans, 
entering into a union with the ^tolians against them; but, 
in a great battle at Thermopylas, the allied forces 
were signally defeated (191 b.c). The next year, 
he suffered another disastrous defeat in the battle 



War with the 
Romans. 



of Magnesia, which placed him at the mercy of the Romans. 

He purchased peace by giving up the northern part of Asia 
Minor and all his ships of war, and consenting to 
pay an immense sum of money. The provinces 
which he ceded were added to the kingdom of 



Armenia 
independent. 



Pergamus, thus making it a rival with Syria. This was fol- 
lowed by the revolt of Armenia, which became an independent 
state. Antiochus died in 187 B.C. 

92. During the subsequent history of this monarchy, there 
was a continuous series of interferences by the Romans, then 
rising to the zenith of their power, and extend- 
ing their conquering arms in all directions. The 



Later history. 



minor kingdoms, including Pontus, Parthia, Armenia, etc., 
had risen to positions of importance. In the great war between 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, and the Romans, Ti-gra'nes, 
king of Armenia, who then occupied the Syrian throne, had 
interfered; and this brought upon him the vengeance of the 
Romans. He was defeated, and compelled to relinquish Syria, 
which, four years later, was conquered by Pompey the Great, 
and reduced to a Roman province (65 B.C.). 

III. Egyptian Kingdom of the Ptolemies. 

93. The history of the kingdom of the Ptolemies is the 
history of the later civilization of the Egyptians. The 
foundation of Alexandria by the Macedonian 
conqueror was followed by results of which he 



Foundation. 



could not have dreamed. The transfer of the seat of govern- 
ment from Memphis to the great Alexandrian mart changed 
the whole character of Egyptian ideas and pursuits. Com- 
merce was encouraged, and intei'course with foreigners was 



Kingdom of the Ptolemies. 



137 



no longer condemned; while industrial and literary pursuits 
received an impulse which was unknown in the 
ancient periods of Egyptian civilization. Alex- 



Commerce. 



Alexandria. 



andria was the center of this wonderful national transforma- 
tion; indeed, during the period of the Ptolemies, 
the history of this city is the history of Egypt. 
Here the court dwelt in all its splendor, and here were con- 
gregated the three great elements of the national life — the 
Greeks, the Jews, 
and the Egyptians; 
for the first Ptol- 
emy granted ex- 
tensive privileges 
to the Jews of 
Alexandria. * 

94. Ptolemy, 
surnamed Lagi 
( son of Lagus ), 
and also Soter, who 
founded this king- 
dom, was one of 
Alexander's great- 
est generals. On 
the first division of 
the empire, he re- 
ceived the administration of the African provinces, and deter- 
mined to build up there a great naval power. In 
this he succeeded, and soon extended his author- 
ity over Palestine, Pha3nicia, and Coele-Syria. He also took 
possession of Cyprus; and for a time held Corinth and Sicyon, 
in Greece. Cyrenaica and Libya were also brought under his 
sway. He retained the old Egyptian nomes, or divisions, 

* He had transported to Alexandria more than 100,000 prisoners from Jerusalem, 
on his reduction of that city ; and, in order to attach them to his government, and 
reconcile them to their new home, he treated them with special liberality. 




Pharos. 



Ptolemy Lagi. 



138 



Ancient History, 



placing a governor over each, and causing the Egyptian 
religion and laws to be respected. In this way he reconciled 
the people to his rule, but he constantly kept a standing 
army of Greeks and Macedonians. 

95. Of all the successors of Alexander, he alone partici- 
pated in the scientific and literary taste of the great con- 
queror. He collected an immense library, invited 
men of learning to take up their residence at his 



Literature, etc. 



capital, and established the Museum, a kind of University 
which drew together a vast body of students from all parts.* 
He also adorned his capital 
with many splen- 
did edifices: con- 



PORT OF AI^EXANDKIA 



Pharos. 



structed the lofty Pharos, of 
white marble, four hundred 
feet high, upon the island 
which formed the port of the 
city,t and a mole or cause- 
way connecting the island 
with the shore {Hep-ta-sta'- 
di-um) ; also a mausoleum 
(So'ma) to contain the body 
of Alexander, the Hippo- 




other buildings. 



drome, and the temple of Se-ra'pis. He like- 
wise rebuilt the inner chamber of the great 
temple at Karnak. He died, after a reign of forty years, 

* Alexandria was built upon a grand plan. Including the suburbs, it had a cir 
cuit of fifteen miles, and was crossed at right angles by two avenues a hundred 
feet wide and adorned with temples, colonnades, and palaces. At the Jntersection 
of these there was a lofty esplanade, or square, from which could be viewed the 
entire harbor. 

tThis edifice was reckoned among the "seven wonders of the world." It was 
not completed till three years after Ptolemy's death. The light constantly burn- 
ing on its summit was visible, it is said, for forty miles. The "seven wonders" 
were the Pyramids of Egypt, the Hanging Garden of Babylon (p. 24), the Temple 
of Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of Jupiter at Olympia, the Mausoleum at Hali- 
carnassus (p. 134), the Colossus at Rhodes (p. 142), and the Pharos (p. 131) at Alex- 
andria. 



Kingdom of the Ptolemies. 139 

at the age of eighty-four (283 B.C.). Ptolemy I. was cer- 
tainly one of the ablest and most enlightened kings that ever 
reigned. 

96. Ptolemy II., called Philadelphus (because he married 
his own sister), was also a great patron of literature and 
science, and did much to advance the commercial 
prosperity of the country. He reopened the canal 
connecting the Red Sea with the Nile (originally 



Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. 



constructed by Rameses II.), and built the port of Ar-sin'o-e, 
on the site of the modern Suez. He likewise founded Bere- 
nice on the coast of the Red Sea, and opened a high-road 
from it to a point on the Nile near Thebes (Coptos), forming 
part of the caravan route by which the merchandise of Arabia, 
Ethiopia, and India was, for many centuries, carried into 
Europe.* Ptolemais, on the Red Sea, became the emporium 
of the ivory trade, which was very valuable at that time. 
Ptolemy boasted that '^no citizen was idle m Alexandria." 
" Glass-blowing, the weaving of linen, paper-making from the 
papyrus, and the arts connected with the shipping trade," 
employed the whole people. Even the blind and lame, it was 
said, were taught to labor. 

97. The annual revenue of this king from Egypt alone, 
exclusive of the tribute in grain, amounted to nearly eighteen 
millions of dollars. His military force comprised 
an army of about 250,000 men, besides elephants 
and war-chariots; and he had a fleet of 1500 ves- 



State of the 
kingdom. 



sels. But his efforts in behalf of learning were the chief 
source of his fame. He augmented vastly the library com- 
menced by his father; invited learned men to his court, and 
patronized important literary works. Among the latter was 



* The vessels of the Alexandrian merchants, starting from Berenice, sailed down 
the Red Sea, and along the Arabian and Indian coasts to the mouths of the Indus, 
or sometimes as far as Mangalore, on the Malabar coast. Then, after receiving 
their cargoes, they returned by the same cautious navigation to Berenice, whence 
the merchandise was transported by caravans to Coptos on the Nile, and thence 
floated down to Alexandria,, 



140 



Ancient History. 



the translation of tlie Hebrew Scriptures into Greek,* and 
the History of Egypt, by Manetho. Philadelphns 
was also a great patron of the arts, and adorned 



Literary works. 



Alexandria with architectural works of great magnificence. 
He died after a reign of thirty-eight years (247 B.C.) 

98. Under Ptolemy Eu-er'ge-tes (the Be7iefactor), the 
kingdom attained its greatest extension, comprising Egypt, 




Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. 



Nubia, the Oyrenaica, part of Ethiopia, a portion of the west- 
ern coast of Arabia, Palestine, Phoenicia, and Coele-Syria, 
Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, including the famous city 
of Halicarnas'sus,t and Ionia, besides Cyprus and the 

* This was the famous translation called the Septuagint {septuaginta, seventy), 
so called from the number of persons engaged in the work. It was prosecuted 
during several reigns. 

t Halicarnassus was the birth-place of Herodotus. It was at first a Dorian city, 
but afterward conquered by the Persians, though it retained its Greek character. 
The most noted of its rulers was Mausolus, whose widow Artemisia, after his 



Ptolemy 
Euergetes. 



The Minor Kingdoms. 141 

Cyclades, and a part of Thrace. [See map IV.] This king 
was not only a great conqueror, but a patron 
of learning and art; and many distinguished 
Scholars flourished during his reign. The glorious 
period of the kingdom of the Ptolemies terminates with 
Euergetes. A succession of wicked and incapable monarchs 
occupied the throne during the remaining period of its history, 
until its final conquest by Kome, during the reign of Queen 
Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies (30 B.C.). 

IV. The Minor Kingdoms. 

99. In addition to the three great kingdoms of Macedonia, 
Syria, and Egypt, formed out of the vast dominions of Alex- 
ander the Great, there were several smaller states, 
which played an important part m the history of 



Minor states. 



this period. Chief among these were Pergamus, Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, in Asia Minor; Ar- 
menia, Bactria, and Parthia, in the East; and Judea. The 
last mentioned has already been treated of; and a brief sketch 
will here be given of the others, in order that the subsequent 
history may be better understood. [See map IV.] 

100. Pergamus was founded by a lieutenant of Lysimachus 
(283 B.C.), but did not acquire any prominence until the 
reign of Attains, who distinguished himself by his alliance 
with the Eomans in the war against Antiochus. This king- 
dom lasted 150 years, at the end of which its last king, 
Attains III., left it, with all its treasures, to the Eomans 

death (352 b.c), erected to his memory so magnificent a monument that every 
similar structure has been called a mausoleum. This monument was ranked 
among the "seven wonders of the world," on account of its size and artistic 
beauty. The basement was nearly square, about 400 feet in circumference and 
50 feet high, above which rose a structure surrounded with Ionic columns, sup- 
porting a pyramid, which was surmounted by a four-horse chariot, containing a 
statue of Mausolus, about ten feet high. This statue is now in the British Museum. 
The cut represents the design as restored by means of portions of the building 
recovered by excavations made within the last twenty-five years, 



142 Ancient History. 



(133 B.C.). The kings of Pergamus were noted for their 

attention to literature; and they collected an immense library, 

which was afterward carried to Alexandria. 

101. Bithynia, even in the Persian period, was partly 

governed by native princes, and was not completely reduced 
by Alexander. It continued to be an independent 
kingdom until the Roman conquests began in the 



Bithynia. 



east, and was brought to an end by Nic-o-me'des, its last 
king, who bequeathed it to the Romans (74 B.C.). 

102. Paphlagonia had, like Bithynia, partially achieved 
its independence during the time of the Persian Empire; but, 
on the destruction of that monarchy, it was 
annexed to Pontus. It regained its indepen- 



Paphlagonia. 



dence about 200 B.C., but was again seized by Mithrida'tes 

the Great, of Pontus, and was once more united with that 

kingdom. 

103. Pontus, originally a part of the Persian satrapy of 

Cappadocia, declared its independence about the middle of 
the fourth century B.C., and maintained itself as 
a separate kingdom, under a line of able mon- 



Pontus. 



archs, till the time of the long war between the Romans and 
its great king Mithridates. At the close of that war, the 
greater part of its dominions was formed into a Roman 
province. 

104. Cappadocia, the southern portion of the Persian 
satrapy of that name, revolted from the sway of the Mace- 
donian rulers, about 315 B.C., and no attempt 
was made by Antigonus or Seleucus to reduce 



Cappadocia. 



it to obedience. It came into frequent conflicts with the 
Roman power, but was not finally subdued till 17 a.d. 

105. Armenia, after its revolt from the rule of Antiochus 
the Great (190 B.C.), was split up into two kingdoms — the 
Greater and the Lesser Armenia. The former 
{^Armenia Major) continued till its conquest by 



the Romans under Trajan (114 a.d.); the latter had been 



Bactna and 
Parthia. 



Grecian CtoiUzation. 143 

many years previously absorbed by Pontiis, and conquered, 
with that kingdom, by the Eomans. 

106. Bactria assumed the position of a free state in the 
middle of the third century B.C., and retained its indepen- 
dence until it was overwhelmed by the Parthians 
and the Scythian hordes from the north during 
the next century. Parthia arose at about the 
same time as Bactria, during the weak reign of Antiochus II. 
(about 255 B.C.). Tiie revolt of the Parthians was the uprising 
of a Turanian people against their foreign rulers; and, from a 
small beginning, they gradually spread their power over the 
greater part of Western Asia.* For five centuries the Par- 
thian nation retained its independence and influence, until it 
finally succumbed again to the Aryan race, as re^^resented m the 
New Persian Monarchy (226 a.d.). [See maps V. and VII.] 



SECTION VIII. 

Grecian" Ciyilizatioj^. 

I. Early Customs and Institutions. 

107. In the early period of Greek civilization, the people 
were the willing subjects of their kings; and accounts of the 
chiefs, warriors, and heroes occupy all the space 
m the annals or literature of the time. The 



Early period. 



king, at first, was merely a chief among the patriarchs, or 
heads of families. Unlike the mighty Babylonian or Egyp- 
tian monarchs, he was a simple ruler, without any grand 
palace, military host, or crowd of slaves. The affluent re- 
joiced in their extensive flocks and herds, farms and vine- 

* The Parthians checked the Roman conquests by the signal defeat of Crassus 
and his army (52 B.C.). Their cavalry of mounted archers was the most formidable 
known, their arrows being discharged backward with deadly effect while they 
were retreating with the speed of the wind. 



144 Ancient History. 



yards; the poor Avere agricultural or pastoral laborers. But 
this was only the primitive state of things, and among the 
earliest inhabitants, to whom reference is made in the myths, 
or traditionary legends of that remote period. 

108. When the people living near the coasts came into 
communication with the Phoenician merchants, a new life 
began ; and the energies of the Greeks were 
aroused to build ships and trade with foreign 
peoples. They also learned the Phoenician mode 



Rise of 
commerce. 



of writing, as well as their system of weights and measures, 
and many other things; and they, moreover, learned to employ 
their skill in shij^-building and navigation for the purpose of 
piracy and pillage. 

109. The poems of Homer give us a pretty clear idea of 
Greek life and manners during the period of the Trojan war, 
in the twelfth century B.C. The king was ruler, 
priest, and judge, presiding over religious ceremo- 



Homeric period. 



nies, and offering up public prayers and sacrifices. He assem- 
bled the chiefs in council to discuss the affairs of the com- 
munity, and to deliberate upon the measures to be adopted; and 
of these notice was given to the people convened in the market- 
place {ag'ora), but there was no popular vote. The king 
and his council (bou'le) decided everything. The Homeric 
period was a time of war and lawless violence. Neither 
property nor life was respected; and those who resisted the 
depredations of powerful robbers or pirates were liable to 
be carried off as slaves. We find, however, that women were 
treated with more tenderness and respect than by many other 
of the peoples of that age; and instances of generosity, friend- 
ship, and honor abound in the mythical narratives of the time. 
110. The stories of that age about the great kings and 
heroes that flourished, and performed prodigies 
of daring and strength, possess a peculiar interest. 
Such are the accounts given of those who took 



Kings and 
heroes. 



part in the famous siege of Troy — Ag-a-mem'non, king of 



Grecian Civilization. 145 

My-ce'nae, in Argolis, tlie commander-in-chief of the Greek 
forces engaged in that famous war; U-lys'ses, king of the 
Island of Ithaca; Nes'tor, the sage monarch of Pylus; the 
vahant Di-o-me'des, of Argos ; and the terrible heroes 
Achilles {a-lcil'Uz) and Ajax. 

111. The ruins of Mycenae and Ti'ryns, in Argolis, show 
that their builders possessed a remarkable knowledge of many 
arts. Some of the walls are made of blocks 
of stone so enormous that it would seem they 
could have been moved only by people of gigantic 



Mycenae and 
Tiryns. 



strength. Of these the massive gate of Mycenae and the arch 
of Tiryns are examples. Hence, this style of architecture has 
been called Cycloj^ean (from Cy' clops, the name of a giant). 
At Tiryns there are walls twenty-five feet thick; and both 
there and at Mycenae the most wonderful remains have been 
exhumed by that diligent explorer. Dr. Schlie- 
mann, who has also discovered and explored, it is 
believed, the site of ancient Tro}^ It is made 



Schliemann's 
discoveries. 



evident by these researches that the houses of the nobles of 
this period were adorned with gold, silver, and bronze orna- 
ments of elegant design and workmanship. 

II. Religion of the Greeks. 

112. As a people the Greeks were very religious. They 
lived under a constant sense of the presence and influence of 
unseen powers and intelligences, and worshiped them with a 
variety of rites and ceremonies. All the events and incidents 
of life were construed as the effects of the interference of 
their deities, towards whom they constantly maintained a 
feeling of reverence and awe. The objects of their worship 
were very numerous, but there were certain deities that 
received a special adoration, among whom the following 
twelve were regarded as the great gods and goddesses of 
Olympus, upon the summit of which mountain, it was con- 
ceived, they had their abode: Zeus (zuse), or Jupiter, as called 



146 



Ancient History. 



by the Komans, Po-sei'don (Neptune), A-pol'lo, A'res 
(Mars), He-phaes'tos (Vulcan), Her'mes (Mer- 
cury), He're (Juno), Atlie'ne (Minerva), Ar'- 
temis (Diana), Apli-ro-di'te (Venus), Hes'tia 



Gods of 
Olympus. 



(Vesta), De-me'ter (Ceres). 

113. In the mythology of the Greeks, who attributed the 

characteristics of mortals to their deities, Ze%i8 was conceived 
to be the king of the Gods. He ruled over the 
divine ag'ora when in session upon the heights of 



Zeus. 



Olympus, and kept each of the lesser deities within the special 
scope of his or her powers. He was the descendant of Kron'os, 

and himself the progenitor 
of many of the other deities. 
Thus Minerva is said to 
have sprung from his brain. 
His wife was Here or Juno. 
It was, according to the 
Greek conception, Zeus who 
punished crime and wicked- 
ness and rewarded virtue and 
heroism. He wielded the 
thunderbolt, and often in- 
flicted swift and unrelent- 
ing chastisement 
wrong-doer. In the early period, such a human 
might satisfy the ideas of an undeveloped race; 




|iiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiii»iiuiMmiiiiii»iiiiiiimiiin\imiiiiiiniiiimii.iiim»niiiiiiiimmwiiiiiiiil 
piilOHlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllWillllllHIIllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllll^ 

A Grecian Temple. 



the 



upon 
personage 
but when 

Greece, and more particularly Athens, rose to its wonderful 
height in intellectual culture, the thinkers and philosophers 
turned from it to loftier and more spiritual conceptions of a 
supreme, over-ruling deity. 

114. The following are the characteristics and modes of 
representation of these several personages: 



1, Zeus, called the Chud-gatTierer, the Thunderer, the Supreme Buler, 
the Father of gods and man, was usually represented as seated on a 
throne with the thunderbolts in his right hand, a scepter in his left, and 






J 



Grecian Civilization. 



147 



an eagle by his side, as a symbol of his kingship among ihe gods. His 
statue at Olympia, made of gold and ivory, was forty feet in height, 
and "was reckoned among the "seven wonders." It was tlie work of 
Phi'di-as, the most celebrated of the Greek sculptors. 

2. Poseidon, the Roman Neptune, the brother of Zeus, was the ruler 
of the sea. He is called by Homer the Earth-shaker, for he had con- 
trol of earth-quakes. He is represented as driving over the sea in a 
chariot drawn by sea-horses, holding the trident in his hand. His 
wife was a sea-goddess named Am-phi-tri'te ; and various sea-deities, 
Ne 're-ids, Tri'tons, etc., were his attendants. 

3. Apollo, the son of Zeus, and god of the sun, called, sometimes 
Phcebos- Apollo, or god of light. He was 
worshiped occasionally as He'lios, the sun, 
particularly in the island of Rhodes, where 
there was an enormous bronze statue of 
him — the famous Colossus of Rhodes, reck- 
oned among the Seven Wonders;* though, 
originally, Helios was a separate divinity. 
Apollo was also the god of music, song, and 
poetry ; of medicine, and of various earth- 
ly blessings; and he was the imperson- 
ation of manly beauty, as he is repre- 
sented by the sculptors. The Apollo Bel- 
videre is an example. Apollo presided, 
over the greatest oracle of antiquity. 

4. Ares, son of Zeus and Here, presided over war, like the Roman 
Mars. Of all the higher gods he was the most fierce and terrible, 
taking pleasure in slaughter and destruction. Hence he is represented 
as a warrior with helmet, spear, and shield. The celebrated Areopagus, 
at Athens, was thought to be his principal seat. 

5. Hephaestos, son of Zeus and Here, was the god of fire, correspond- 
ing to the Roman Vulcan. He was represented as lame and deformed. 
He presided over all the arts in which fire is used; and was kept busy in 




Zeus, or Jupiter. 



* This wonderful work was made from the spoils left by Demetrius Poliorcetes 
when he raised the protracted siege of Rhodes. It was commenced by a sculptor 
named Chares, who, finding the sum of money appropriated for its construction 
exhausted before it was half completed, committed suicide. It was, accordingly, 
finished by another artist. The statue was 105 feet high, and contained a winding 
staircase reaching to the head. It was thrown down by an earthquake after it had 
stood .56 years (224 B.C.), and lay prostrate nine centuries, when it was sold to a Jew 
by the Saracens after their capture of Rhodes. According to the Roman writer 
Pliny, Rhodes had one hundred colossal statues, though none so large as the Colossus. 



148 



Ancient History. 



his hlacksmith-sliop in Vesuvius, forging tlie thunderbolts of Jupiter 
and the arms and armor of Ares. He was married to Aphrodite. 

6. Hermes, son of Zeus, the Mercury of the Romans, was the mes- 
senger of the gods. He presided over trade and commerce, and was 
noted for his cunning and adroitness. He is represented as a strong, 
beardless youth, with short hair, a winged cap {j)etasus), a herald's staff 
with wings (caduceus), twined with snakes, in one hand, and a purse in 
the other, and having winged sandals on his feet. 

7. He're, or Juno, was the sister as well as the wife of Zeus, being 
the daughter of Kronos. She wears a royal diadem and scepter, and 

a veil spangled with stars, 




Colossus of Rhodes. (See note, p. 147. 



to indicate her rank as the 
queen of heaven. She is 
represented as a woman of 
beauty, but of great majesty 
and sternness. She was the 
patron and protectress of 
marriage, but the imper- 
sonation of jealousy, pride, 
and revenge. 

8. Athene, or Minerva, 
called also Pallas, was the 
daughter of Zeus, spring- 
ing from his brain, fully 
armed as the goddess of 
war and wisdom. She is 
represented as a stately 
woman of great beauty, 
with spear, shield, and hel- 
met. She was the patron 
goddess of Athens, where 



the celebrated temple called the Parthenon (see page 165) was constructed 
in her honor. It contained a magnificent gold and ivory statue of her, 
carved by Phidias. 

9. Artemis, or Diana, was the twin sister of Apollo, and was the 
goddess of the moon, of night, and of hunting. She is represented as 
very beautiful, wearing sandals on her feet, a quiver full of arrows, 
and a bow or spear in her hand.* 



* The worship of Diana prevailed more in some parts of colonial Greece than in 
Greece proper. At Ephesus she had a temple which, on accoimt of its magnifi- 
cence, was counted among the seven wonders of the world. Here Diana was 



Grecian Cimlization. 149 

10. Aphrodite, or Venus, was the goddess of love and beauty. She 
is represented with her son Eros, or Cupid. Her worsliip was very 
extensive. 

11. Hestia, or Vesta, a daughter of Kronos, was the goddess of the 
home-tire or lieurtli, and tlie guardian of family life. She is repre- 
sented as a virgin standing or sitting, neatly clad, and holding a lamp 
in one hand and a scepter in the other. 

12. Demeter, or Ceres, a sister of Zeus, was the goddess of the fruits 
of the earth, particularly grain. She is represented as wearing a long 
robe, with a poppy and ears of wheat in her riglit hand and a torch in 
the left. She was the mother of Per-seph'o-ne, or Pros'er-pine, who was 
stolen from her by Pluto, and carried to Ha'des. 

115. These deities were, during the period of Greek 
paganism, the primary objects of religious worship ; but 
there were several others, some of whom were 
almost as prominent. Thus the most ancient of 



Other deities. 



all was Gsea (the earth), who was married to her own son 
Uranos (heaven), with whom commenced the race of the 
gods. Uranos was the father of the Titans and other mon- 
sters, those mighty beings who personified the forces of 
nature, by which the great geological changes of the earth 
were effected. Kronos, the father of Zeus, and Oceanus (the 
ocean) were the sons of Uranos, who had a numerous off- 
spring. All these seem to personify the great physical prin- 
ciples and forces concerned in the operations of nature. Thus 
from Uranos (the sky) comes the fertility which the earth 
receiyes from rain, dew, etc. Similar personifications were 
also Nyx (night), Hyp'nos (sleep), and 0-nei'ros (dream); but 
in the mythology their actual, not allegorical, personality was 
recognized.* 

represented in a peculiar manner. This temple was set on fire by a man named 
Heros'tratos, on the night of the birth of Alexander the Great, but was afterwards 
rebuilt with greater splendor; but not a vestige of it now remains. The worship 
of Diana was at its height when St. Paul went to Ephesus to preach Christianity. 

* " I maintain fully the character of these great divine agents as persons, which 
is the light in which they presented themselves to the Homeric or Hesiodic audi- 
ence. To resolve them into mere allegories is unsafe and unprofitable ; we then 
depart from the point of view of the original hearers without acquiring any con- 
sistent or philosophical point of view of our own." — Grate. 



150 Ancient History. 



116. The Greeks believed in an unseen world, wliich they 
called Ha'des, and which they placed below the surface of the 
earth. This was the abode of the invisible spirits, 
or ^^ shades of the dead," in various conditions of 



J 



bliss or misery, expiating the crimes committed in their earthly 
lives. Over this realm presided the King of the Dead, Pluto, 
sometimes called Hades, who was a brother of Zeus. Di-o-ny'- 
sos, or Bacchus, was also a famous deity, being 
devoted to wine, feasting, and merriment. His 



Dionysos. 



worship was accompanied with many shocking customs. The 
Dionysia, or Bacchanalia, were wild ceremonies in which men 
(Bacchantes) and women (Bacchas) often abandoned them- 
selves, for days and nights together, to the wildest and most 
licentious orgies. These rites were permitted only at certain 
times of the year. 

117. There were also deities who performed special ser- 
vices to the greater gods, such as I'ris, He'be, etc. ; the Muses, 
who presided over the different departments of 
literature, music, and art ; the three Graces ; 



Special deities. 



besides deified heroes and benefactors of mankind, as Per'seus, 
Her'cu-les, vEs-cu-la'pi-us, etc.; and monsters, 
the offspring of the gods, as the Har'pies, the 



Monsters. 



Gor'gons, Cen'taurs, Cer'be-rus, the Dragon of the Hesper'- 

i-des, etc. 

118. All these deities were not universally worshiped, at 

any rate not in the same degree. Different places were 
especially devoted to the worship of different 
gods and goddesses ; and some of them were 



Local religion. 



worshiped only in particular places, being unknown in others; 
as, for instance, marine deities among people connected with 
the sea. This, however, was the case only with the minor deities; 
while a belief in the great Olympian gods and goddesses was 
common to the whole Hellenic nation. Thus all shared in 
paying honor to Zeus in the great festivals at Olympia; to 
Demeter in the mysteries of Eleusis; and to Apollo by con- 



Grecian Civilization. 151 

suiting the oracles; and all had faith in the power of Poseidon, 
as the ililer of the sea, in Pluto as the king of Hades, in Here 
as the queen of heaven, in Ares as the god of war, and in 
Aphrodite as the goddess of love. 

119. The worship of the Greeks consisted chiefly of prayers 
and sacrifices. The former were frequent and universal, being 
offered up both- in the temples and in other public 
places, in the public assemblies, courts of justice. 



Worship. 



and in the home-circle, morning and evening before meals. 
These prayers were usually oral, but were sometimes written on 
tablets and deposited beside the image of the god. One such 
tablet reads: '^^Zeus, our lord, give unto us whatever is good, 
whether we ask it of thee or not; whatever is evil keep far 
from us, even if we ask it of thee." The sacrifices were either 
animals, led to the altar decked with garlands and ribbons, 
or fruits, cakes, etc. Wine, milk, honey, and oil were usually 
poured out in libations. These sacrifices were offered at 
regular timxcs, as, for example, at the time of harvest, when a 
portion of the first-fruits was offered to the gods as a token 
of thankfulness for blessings received. 

120. Eeligious festivals among the Greeks took the place 
of the Jewish or Christian Sabbath. Of these some were held 
at certain times; others came at irregular inter- 
vals, and often lasted two or three days at a time; 



Festivals. 



while occasions of temple service, sacrifices, and entertainments 
were quite frequent. During the regular festivals, which were 
also numerous, there was a general relaxation, all giving 
way, to festivity and merriment.* Among these festivals 

* "When the appointed day arrives, the priests open the temples, pay diligent 
attention to the statues, and nothing is neglected which contributes to the public 
convenience. The cities, too, are crowded with a conflux of the neighboring 
inhabitants, assembled to celebrate the festival, some coming on foot, others in 
ships. At sunrise they enter the temples, in splendid garments, worshiping that 
divinity to whom the festival is sacred. Every master of a house precedes, 
bearing frankincense; a servant follows him, leading a victim; and children walk 
by the side of their parents, some very young, and others of a more advanced age, 
already feeling the strong influence of the gods. One, having performed his 



152 



Ancient History, 



were the Dionysia, in honor of Bjicchiis, ah'eady referred to, 
the mysteries of E-leu'sis, and the Thes-mo-pho'ri-a in Iionor of 
Demeter, the Pan-a-then-a'ic Festival at Athens, in honor 
of Athene, the patron goddess, and the Daph-ne-pho'ria, 
of Thebes, sacred to Apollo. Besides these, were the great 
national festivals of Greece — the 0-lym'pic, Pyth'i-an, Isth'- 
mi-an, and Ne-me'an games, combining worship, festive recrea- 
tion, and trials of athletic strength, as well as, sometimes, liter- 
ary and artistic attainment. 




Olympic 
festival. 



The Foot-race. 

121. The Olympic festival was held in honor of Zeus, on 
the plain of Olympia, in Elis. It took place every fifth year, 
and drew together an immense assemblage from 
all parts of Greece. The exercises at the Olympic 
games consisted of running, wrestling, boxing, 
chariot-racing, and horse-racing; and to be proclaimed a 
victor in these games was considered the highest honor a 
Grecian could attain. None could contend in them but those 
of the Hellenic race, and all who entered into these contests 
were obliged to take an oath that they would use no unfair 

sacrifice, departs; another comes forward to perform liis. Numerous prayers are 
everywhere poured forth, and words of good omen are mutually spoken."— 
Lihanius. 



Grecian OlmUzaUon. 153 

means to obtain the yictory. The only prize bestowed on the 
victor was a simple garland of wild olive. These games were 
the most ancient. They were revived, it is said, by Lycurgus, 
in 776 B.C.; and hence this date, called the First Olympiad, 
was afterward employed by the Greeks as their principal 
chronological era. * 

122. The Pythian games were celebrated in honor of 
Apollo, every fifth year, near Delphi; the Nemean and Isth- 
mian games, once in two years; the former, at 
Neme'a, in honor of Zeus; and the latter on the 
isthmus of Corinth, in honor of Poseidon. In 



Pythian and 
Nemean games. 



Mysteries. 



these festivals there were contests in poetry and music, as 
well as trials of strength. The Eleusinian Mysteries were 
celebrated every year, and lasted ten days. It 
was deemed the duty of every Athenian citizen 
to go to Eleusis at least once during his life for the purpose 
of being initiated. These ceremonies were nocturnal; and, 
it is supposed, were intended to impress upon the minds of 
the initiated the truth of an existence beyond the grave. 
They were sacred to Demeter, and taught the story of her 
sorrows in the loss of Proserpine, or Persephone, the stolen 
bride of the dark king of Hades; but it was a common saying 
among the Athenians, '' In the mysteries no one is sad." 

123. The habit of consulting the oracles for the purpose 
of learning the will of the gods was another 
important feature of the Greek religion. The 



Oracles. 



oracles of Apollo were very numerous, but that at Delphi was 

* " The origin of this festival is lost in the mythical ages. It is said to have 
been revived by Iph'itus, king of Elis, and Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, in the 
year 776 B.C. ; and, accordingly, when the Greeks, at a later time, began to use the 
Olympic contest as a chronological era, this year was regarded as the first 
Olympiad. It continued to maintain its celebrity for many centuries after the 
extinction of Greek freedom ; and it was not till a.d. 394 that it was finally 
abolished by the Emperor Theodosius. It was celebrated at the end of four years, 
and the interval which elapsed between each celebration was called an Olympiad. 
The festival was called by the Greeks a Penta'eteris, because it was celebrated 
every fifth year, according to the ancient mode of reckoning.'"— Smith's History of 
Greece. 



154 Ancient History. 



the most famous, being greatly venerated in all parts of 
Greece, and sometimes consulted by foreign nations, as the 
Lydians, the Phrygians, and the Romans. In the middle of 
tlie Delphic temple there was a small aperture in the ground, 
over which was placed the seat (tripod) of the Pythia, a virgin 
priestess; and a sulphurous gas or vapor arising from the 
opening acted upon her brain, putting her in a kind of trance 
or ecstatic condition, during which she gave expression to 
what was deemed the answer of the god, always in hexameter 
verse. There were oracles of Zeus at Olympia and Do-do'na, 
also in Libya (Jupiter Ammon); and of other gods and heroes 
at different places.* 

124. The G-reeks also sought to ascertain the will of the 
gods, or to obtain a knowledge of future events, not only by 
means of the oracles, but by certain kinds of divination, 
through interpreting dreams, observing the flight of birds, 
the entrails of sacrificed animals, the direction of the flames 
and smoke from the altar, etc. These were auguries of good 
or evil as declared by the regularly appointed soothsayers. 
Great attention was also paid to omens, as earthquakes, 
eclipses, and other unusual phenomena of nature; and many 
of the commonest occurrences of life, if unavoidable, were 
looked upon as indicating the future. Even the act of sneez- 
ing, among these superstitious people, was sometimes deemed 
to present an indication of the will of the gods. 

III. Greek Literature. 

FIRST OR EARLY PERIOD. 

125. !N"o literature is more complete or more interesting 
and valuable than that of the Greeks. The genius or intel- 

* The responses of the oracles were usually ambiguous. Thus when Crcesus, 
the rich king of Lydia, consulted the oracle before entering upon the war with 
Cyrus, the reply was that if he crossed a certain river he would destroy a great 
empire. He construed this to mean the Persian Empire; but, as it turned out, it 
was Lydia itself; for he crossed the river, and was utterly defeated and his king- 
dom finally overthrown. 



Grecian Cimlization. 



155 



lectual greatness of this people displayed itself in every variety 
of production. The epic ])oems attributed to Homer — the 
Iliad and the Odyssey — are still unrivaled among 
works of their class. Little is known of this 



Homer. 



illustrious poet. He was, most probably, one of the Ionic 
and ^olic minstrels of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, the 
brightness of whose genius eclipsed the others; and hence his 
name has been given to these wonderful poems, collected many 
centuries after they were composed. To the 
same age belongs He'si-od, a uative of Boeotia, 



whose ^OQm^—The-og'o-ny and Works and Days— tell us of 

the birth and origin of the gods 
and goddesses of the Greek my- 
thology. 

126. At a later period (in the 
seventh century B.C.), when the 
art of music had made progress, 
we find lyric poetry 
beginning to flourish, 




Lyric poetry. 



Homer. 



among the earliest to cultivate it 
being Ar-chil'o-chus (about 700 
B.C.), who, it is said, was the 
inventor of the elegy, a form of 
emotional poetry. It was about this time that Tyr-tae'us, by 
his soul-stirring elegies, inspired the Spartans to deeds of 
patriotism and valor, during the Messenian war, and a little 
later A-ri'on flourished, of whom Herodotus tells the wonder- 
ful story that he was carried to Corinth on the back of a 
dolphin, Avhich was charmed by his beautiful melodies, for 
l^oets saug and played, as well as composed verses in those days. 
Al-cae'us and Sappho (saffo), both of the island of Lesbos, 
were a little later (about 600 b. c. ) . The 1 atter was the greatest 
of all the Greek poetesses, but only fragments of her poetry 
are extant. To these names must be added A-na'cre-on, of 
Ionia, whose odes possess unrivaled grace and sweetness. 



156 Ancient History. 



127. It was during this early period that the Seven Sages 
of Greece flourished, and also many of the wisest of the 
philosophers.. Among the latter were (1) Thales 
of Miletus (born 640 B.C.), the founder of the 



Seven Sages 



Ionic school, and celebrated for his researches in astronomy 
and geometry; (2) Xenophanes of Elea (a Greek colony in 
southern Italy), who founded the E-le-at'ic school, the doc- 
trines of which were afterward developed by Par-men'i-des and 
Zeno; (3) Py-thag'o-ras, of Samos (born about 580 B.C.), one 
of the greatest of the Greek philosophers, who founded at 
Oroton, in Italy, the Pythagorean school, the doctrines of 
which rapidly spread over the whole of Magna Graecia. 
Pythagoras taught the doctrine of the ^'transmigration of 
souls," which he seems to have learned in his travels in 
Egypt and Babylonia. He also taught, it is said, the ro- 
tundity of the earth, and the central position of the sun in 
the solar system. His moral teachings were pure and ele- 
vated, and exercised a very wide and powerful influence. 

SECOND OR MIDDLE PERIOD, 

128. The second or middle period of Greek literature 
commences at about the opening of the Persian war. Lyric 
poetry reached its highest development in the 



^y"°P^^^^y- I poems of Si-mon'i-des and Pindar. The former 
carried off the prize for an elegy on the fallen heroes of 
Marathon; and he afterward celebrated in beautiful verses 
those who gave their lives to their country at Thermopylae, 
Salamis, and Plat^a. Simonides died in 477 B.C., at the age 
of 80. Pindar, of Thebes, in Ba3otia, was somewhat younger. 
His odes are much admired for their sublimity; hence he has 
been styled the ''Theban eagle." 

129. Greek tragedy, the rude beginnings of which had 
been made by Thespis, about the middle of the 
sixth century, was carried to a point of great 



Tragedy. 



excellence by JEschylus (es^Jce-his), who may be regarded as 



Grecian Civilization. 157 



the founder of the tragic art, which Eurip'i-des and Soph'o-cles 
subsequently advanced to so high a degree of perfection and 
beauty. Among the i)rose writers of this period, 
Herodotus, of Halicarnassus, called the "Father 



of History," claims the first place. In his famous history he 
embodied all the results of his extensive travels in Egypt and 
the East; and it is related that he read his nine books to 
the assembled throng at the great Olympian festival; and 
that the delighted audience gave the names of the nine 
muses to his books, and paid him honors superior to those 
decreed to the victors in the games.* Herodotus was born in 
484 B.C., and lived to the end of the century. 

130. Thu-cyd'i-des merits the praise of being a far more 
philosophic historian than Herodotus. His history of the 
Peloponnesian war is written in a chaste and ~ 
dignified style, and displays a remarkable insight 
in regard to the causes of events and the inner motives of men's 
actions. He was born in 471 B.C., being contemporaneous 
with Herodotus. Xenophon was a little later, as he lived to 
the middle of the fourth century. He also wrote p- - " 

I Xenophon. 

history as well as philosophy. His most noted 



Thucydides. 



works are MemoraMVia (memorable things) of Socrates, a 
defense of his great master; the Cyropcedi'a, an account of 
the life of Cyrus the Great, a kind of historical romance, 
designed to illustrate the institutions of the early Persians; 
the Aiiab'asis (ascent), or expedition of the younger Cyrus, 
one of the most charming histories in existence ; and the 
Helle'nica, a continuation of the history of Thucydides. 
The style of Xenophon, clear, natural, and graceful, won for 
him the title of the "Attic bee." 



* It is said that Thucydides, afterward so distinguished as an historian, then a 
boy, was present at the festival with his father, and was so affected by the recital 
of Herodotus that he shed tears, upon which the great historian congratulated the 
father upon having a son who displayed so early such a zeal for knowledge and 
literature 



158 Ancient History. 



131. Plato (429-347 B.C.) stands pre-eminent among the 
philosophers and writers of his time, for the extreme beauty 
of his style and the purity and spirituality of his 
teacliings. He was the founder of the Academic 



Plato. 



school, so called from tlie grove of Acade'miis, near Athens, 
where he delivered his lectures. His doctrines are presented 
m the form of dialogues, in which the chief speaker is 
Socrates. Thus, while he imparted his own views, he illus- 
tnited the philosophic teachings of his great master, an 
account of whom has already been given. 

132. Contemporaneous with Socrates and Plato, were the 
following philosophers: An-ax-ag'o-ras, an intimate friend of 

I Pericles, who taught mathematics and astronomy; 
^p°hn?s7h°Jr? Xen-oc'ra-tes, an eminent pupil of Plato ; Di-og'- 

. I e-nes, a famous cynic, who taught and practiced 

a supreme contempt for all the usages, conveniences, and 
])roprieties of life, living, it is said, for some time in a tub; 
Ar-is-tip'pus, a disciple of Socrates, who founded what was 
called the Oyrenaic school, teaching that the highest good 
consists in rational enjoyment; and De-moc'ri-tus, sometimes 
called the 'Maughing philosopher," because he treated the 
follies and vices of mankind with ridicule. He taught that 
the physical universe consists of atoms, and that nature, 
space, and motion are eternal. 

133. Epicurus (342-270 B.C.), the founder of the Epi- 
curean school, expanded the doctrine of Aristippus, teach- 
ing that happiness consists in pleasure derived 
from the practice of virtue; while his great con 



Epicurus. 



temporary, Zeno, founded the school of the Stoics, who were 
noted for their simplicity and severity of manners, their 
fortitude, and the rigidness af their moral princi- 
ples. Zeno selected for his school a place called 



Zeno. 



the Porch (stod), and hence his followers were called the ^' men 
of the porch." This was perhaps the most influential, in a 
moral point of view, of all the schools of practical philosophy. 



Grecian Cimlizatlon. 159 



The most illustrious of the writers on the Stoic philosophy 
were Ep-ic-te'tus and the Roman emperor, Marcus Aurelius. 

134. The Peripatetic school, which Aristotle founded 
(384-322 B.C.), exerted the greatest intellectual influence, 
not only upon his own age, but for nearly two 
thousand years afterward. His works covered a 



Aristotle. 



vast field of research, embracing the consideration of natural 
as well as moral philosophy, besides history, rhetoric, and 
criticism. His greatest claim to credit is for his logical 
system, which, as the art of reasoning, exerted great influence, 
and is still accepted and used as a true analysis of the process 
of argumentation. Aristotle lectured in a place at Athens 
called the Lyce'um; and from his habit of walking up and 
down Avhile delivering his lectures, his school was called the 
Peripatetic (from peripateiii, to walk about). Aristotle was 
selected by Philip of Macedon to be the preceptor of his illus- 
trious son Alexander, and the monarch afterward liberally 
assisted him in the prosecution of his researches. 

135. The Greek drama embraced both tragedy and comedy. 
The former, as seen in the works of the two great masters, 
Sophocles and Euripides, was designed to illustrate \ — • 

not only certain phases of human life and passion, I ! 

but the relation of these to the overruling power of the gods. 
These works were confined within much more strict limita- 
tions as to form and plot than the modern tragedy of Shake- 
speare and others. Athenian comedy, like tragedy, derived 
its origin from the celebration of the Dionysia. Its greatest 
masters were Ar-is-toph'a-nes (born at Athens 432 B.C.), who 
ridiculed Socrates in his comedies, and Menander (born 342 
B.C.), who wrote more than one hundred comedies, upon 
which those of the Roman dramatists Plautus and Terence 
were afterward based. 

136. Oratory, which bears an intimate relation to litera- 
ture, was cultivated with wonderful success, especially by the 
Athenians, among whom schools of rhetoric and eloquence 



160 



Ancient History. 



were early established. The oratory of Pericles has already 
been referred to; but it was in the period suc- 
ceeding him that eloquence reached its greatest 



Oratory. 



height. Among the most noted orators were Lys'i-as, I-soc'- 
ra-tes, ^s-chi'nes, and Demosthenes; but the last mentioned 
eclipsed all the others. By the moderns, who have only 
read his orations, as well as by the ancients who heard them 
delivered, Demosthenes has been pronounced the greatest 
orator that ever lived. 



Poetry. 



THIRD OR LATER PERIOD. 

137. During this period, Alexandria became the seat of 
learning; and the patronage of the early Ptole- 
mies drew to that city the most distinguished 

writers from all parts of Greece. Among these may be 

mentioned The-oc'ri-tus, the most 
charming of pastoral poets, a na- 
tive of Syracuse. Mos'chus, also 
of Syracuse, and Bi'on, of Smyrna, 
were his contemporaries and imi- 
tators. Their poems are very 
graceful and beautiful. The 
hymns and elegies of Cal-lim'a- 
chus, who also flourished at 
Alexandria, were widely admired. 
Ap-ol-lo'ni-usEho-dius, the author 
of a noted poem on the Argo- 

nautic expedition, in the Homeric style, also belongs to this 

l^eriod. 

138. At Alexandria flourished, moreover, the schools of 
the grammarians and critics Aristophanes and Ar-is-tar'chus, 

the former being the chief librarian during the 
reigns of the second and third Ptolemy. Eu'clid, 
the famous mathematician, author of the elements 




Demosthenes. 



Grammar and 
criticism. 



of geometry, still used as a text -book, flourished at Alexan- 



Grecian Cimlization. 161 

dria, as also his successor Apollonius, who wrote on the 
conic sections, besides many other mathematicians. 
Ptolemy, the greatest astronomer and geographer 



Science. 



Prose writers. 



of antiquity, also lived in Alexandria about the middle of 
the second century a.d. He was the author of the famous 
Ptolemaic system of astronomy, which placed the earth in the 
center of the universe, a theory that continued to be main- 
tained until quite modern times. 

139. Prominent among the prose writers of this period 
should be mentioned Polyb'ius (204-122 B.C.), who lived in 
Eome, and wrote a history of the Eoman republic; 
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, who also wrote on 
Roman history and on criticism ; Di-o-do'rus Siculus (the 
Sicilian), the author of a general history; Plutarch, a native 
of Boeotia, whose Lives continue to be read with pleasure; 
and Josephus, the Jewish historian, born in Jerusalem, 
37 A.D. To these may be added Stra'bo, the geographer; 
Lu'cian, the satirist of the Greek mythology; and Ga'len, the 
noted physician, whose writings form an epoch in the science 
of medicine. Galen was born in Pergamus, but studied in 
Alexandria, Corinth, and Smyrna. He visited Rome several 
times. Most of these belong to the latter part of this period. 

140. Greek literature does not wholly terminate at this 
point, but extends to the fall of the Greek Empire (1453 a.d.). 
A sketch of it during this period will be given 
in connection with the history of the Middle 



Later literature. 



Ages, in another part of this work. The Greek language, it 
may here be observed, was not only the vehicle of pagan civ- 
ilization and cVtlture, but that by which the great truths of 
Christ's life and teachings were imparted to mankind in the 
early Christian period. Three at least of the Gospels were 
written in Greek, as well as most of the other books of the 
New Testament. Many of the Fathers of the early Church 
also wrote in the Greek language. The translation of the He- 
brew Scriptures into Greek (the Septuagint), by the Seventy, 



162 



Ancient History. 



has already been referred to in connection with the history of 
Alexandria under the Ptolemies. 

141. Books and Writing. The books of the ancient 
Greeks were very different from those of modern times. 
They were written by hand on long sheets of 
paper, made from the bark of the Egyptian plant 
papyrus. These sheets were rolled on a staff; hence the 
name volume, a roll. The title of the book was usually 
written on a tag, susj^ended to the roll. Sometimes parch- 
ment was used instead of paper. A reed sharp- 
ened and split at the point served as a pen; and 



Pens and ink. 



the ink was a black or red pigment, kept in inkstands of 




Q ad 

Writing Materials of the Greeks. 



various forms. 'Letters, memoranda, etc., were written upon 
wax-covered tablets (6') by means of a sharp in- 
strument, of ivory or metal, called a stylus, which 
usually had a flattened end for erasing [a, d); 



Tablets and 
stylus. 



but sometimes a broad erasing instrument (b) waa used. 



IV. Greek Art. 

142. Greek art dates back beyond the Homeric period, 
as is evident from the remains found at Mycenae and other 
places, which show that statuary, drawing, design- 
ing, and painting must have already made con- 
siderable progress. But it was during the period immediately 
succeeding the Persian War that Greek art reached Its culmi- 



Early art. 



Grecian Cimlization. 



163 



nation, in those masterpieces of architecture and sculpture 
which the highest genius of the modern world has scarcely 
approached, much less surpassed.* It was in 
these two arts that the Greeks especially excelled; 
for, although they had some great painters, the 



Architecture 
and sculpture. 



highest achievements in painting, as well as in music, were 
left to subsequent peoples and times. 

Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. 




The Three Orders of Greek Architecture. 

143. There were three styles or orders of architecture 
during the classic period, which are still recognized by builders: 
the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, the difference 



* Speaking of the Parthenon, at Athens, Ferguson says in his Histori/ of Archi- 
tecture : "In its own class it is undoubtedly the mos't beautiful building in the 
world. It is true it has neither the dimensions nor the wondrous expression of 
power and eternity inherent in Egyptian temples ; nor has it the variety and poetry 
of the Gothic cathedral ; but for intellectual beauty, for perfection of proportion, 
for beauty of detail, and for the exauisite perception of the highest and most 
recondite principles of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly alone and 
unrivaled— the glory of Greece and the shame of the rest of the world." 



164 



Ancient History. 



depending chiefly on the character of the column. Of these 
the Doric is the oldest, being, as its name implies, 
tlie style used by the ancient Dorians. It was 
plain and massive, but of graceful proportions. 



Orders of 
architecture. 



The column is usually without a base, and the capital desti- 
tute of . ornament. The finest example of this 
style is the famous Parthenon (House of the 



Virgin), a magnificent temple of Athene, erected under the 
supervision of Phidias, on the Acropolis at Athens. The 
remains of the great temples at Paestum, in southern Italy, 
present some fine specimens of the ancient Doric style. The 

great temple at Delj^hi, 
and that of Juno, at Sa- 
mos, the largest temple 
which Herodotus ever 
saw, were built in this 
style. The latter was 
about 350 feet in length 
and 190 in breadth. 

144. The Ionic de- 
rived its name from the 
Ionic Capital. Greek cities in lonia, 

where it was first used. Its characteristics are lightness, 
gracefulness, and tastefulness of ornament. The 
shaft of the column is slender, and rests upon a 
base; and the capital is adorned by sjiiral volutes. The great 
temple of Diana, at Ephesus, commenced about 600 B.C., was 
of this order. Its length was 425 feet, and its breadth 220 
feet. The Corinthian is really a modification of the Ionic, 
and abounds in graceful ornamentation. Its 
capital is said to have been suggested to the 




Ionic. 



Corinthian. 



mind of Oal-lim'a-chus, the celebrated sculptor, by seeing a 
basket covered by a tile and overgrown by the leaves of an 
acanthus. The earliest building in this style is the monument 
of Ly-sic'ra-tes, sometimes called the Lantern of Demosthenes, 



Grecian Omilization. 



165 



built in 335 B.C. The Corinthian style was usually selected 
for buildings requiring peculiar elegance and delicacy, as 
temples dedicated to Venus, etc. 

145. Sculpture, or statuary, like architecture, owed its 
origin to religion. The first statues were those of the gods. 
These were at first yery rude and uncouth. The 
adornment of the temples by figures in relief 
preceded the sculpture of detached figures. We have an 



Sculpture. 



example of this in the two lions that still exist over the gate- 
way of the ancient city of Mycenae. It was in the period of 




The Parthenon, Restored. 



Athenian greatness that this beautiful art reached its perfec- 
tion, under the great masters, Phidias, Po-ly-cle'tus, My'ron, 
and Prax-it'i-les. It was Phidias that executed the ornamental 
statuary for the Parthenon, and carved the great statue of 
Athene placed within that splendid temple. The Olympian 
Zeus at Elis was another of his works. 

146. Painting among the Greeks was of later develop- 
ment than sculpture, but never reached the same degree of 
excellence. The Greek paintings were in water 
colors or in wax, as oil colors were not known. 



Painting, 



Contemporary with Phidias at Athens was Pol-yg-no'tus, the 
first Grecian painter of fame. He devoted himself to the 



166 



Ancient History. 



adornment of many of the public buildings of Athens ; the 
Painted Porch {PmiU 8toa), where Zeno afterward taught, 
was among his works. Under Zeux'is and Par-rha'si-us, paint- 
ing reached a far higher degree of advancement, as the fol- 
lowing interesting incident related of those two artists shows. 
In a trial of skill, Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes so naturally 

that the birds came and picked at 
them; but Parrhasius said, '^Now 
draw aside the curtain that covers 
my picture;" and on attempting to 
do so, Zeuxis found that the curtain 
was the picture, and at once con- 
ceded the palm of superiority to his 
rival. '^I paint very slowly," said 
Zeuxis at one time, "but I paint 
for eternity." The greatest paint- 
er of the time of Alexander was 
A-pel'les, who had the exclusive 
privilege of painting the Macedon- 
ian monarch's portrait. The most 
beautiful work of Apelles was the 
picture of Venus rising from the 
sea {Aphrodite Aii-a-dy-om' e-ne).* 
146. The various arts of design were carried by the Greeks 
to the greatest degree of perfection. In all these they showed 
a taste of the highest delicacy and refinement, in 
many things affording a standard for all subse- 
quent times. Not only in architecture and sculpture was 
Greek art illustrated, but in the internal decorations of their 




A Grecian Vase. 



Arts of design. 



* Apelles was not ashamed to learn from the humblest critics in things which 
they understood ; and he used to exhibit his pictures before his house, and conceal 
himself so as to hear the remarks of those passing by. On one occasion a shoe- 
maker found fault with the shoes of one of his figures; and noticing afterward 
that it was corrected, ventured to make further criticisms, when Apelles rushed 
out, and bade the "cobbler to stick to his last." Hence the maxim: Ne sutor 
supra orepidnm. 



Grecian Qimlization. 167 



houses, their elaborately painted walls and ceilings, their 
ornamental tiling, their tastefully constructed furniture, their 
beautiful vases, and other vessels both for ornament and use, 
and their jewelry (see page 170). In all these they showed a 
genius for the invention of beautiful forms which has never 
been surpassed. 

V. Social Life and Manners. 

147. In considering the social life of the Greeks in general, 
the Athenians may be taken as a model, with but few qualifi- 
cafcions. The Spartan institutions, which were 
totally dissimilar, have been already described. 
The difference between the Greek civilization and 



Greek 

civilization. 



our own, in regard to morals and manners, was the effect 
chiefly of their widely different ideas in respect to religion, 
their peculiar physical and intellectual character, and the 
traditions of their ancestors. Their religious notions were 
strong, as has been already stated, but were not capable of 
elevating them to a high degree of spirituality in their daily 
lives, or of inspiring them with an exalted morality, or unsel- 
fish regard for others. The institution of slavery was also a 
fruitful source of corruption in the manners and institutions 
of this refined people. 

148. In the better class of dwelling-houses, there was a 
division into two sets of apartments — for the men and the 
women respectively. Each set was built in the 
form of a square with an open court in the in- 
terior, usually paved and sometimes ornamented 



Dwelling- 
houses. 



with a fountain in the center. The rooms were entered from 
porticoes round this square. The street door opened into a 
wide lobby leading directly into the men's court, across which 
a passage led into the women's court. Attached to the 
women's apartments were halls for spinning, weaving, and 
other household work. The heating was by fireplaces, and 
by the side of the hearth were the images of the household 



168 Ancient History. 



gods; and at the street door there was usually an image as 
well as an altar.* The chief peculiarity in respect to the fur- 
niture was the use of sofas or couches, instead of chairs, 
when at meals. Glass was not used; and the dishes and 
other vessels were of pottery, metal, or wood. Mirrors were 
usually made of polished bronze. Lamps of various forms 
were used, some of very beautiful designs. 

149. The Greeks, as a rule, had but two meals a day, one in 
the morning and the other toward evening, which 
was the principal meal. They were not luxurious 



eaters; bread made of wheat, flour, or barley v/as used -as a 
portion of each meal, with flesh or fish, the former always used 
sparingly, with various kinds of vegetables. Ban- 
quets were served with fish of various kinds. 



Food. 



also flesh and fowl, followed by sweetmeats and fruits, such 
as olives, figs, nuts, and fresh fruits in season. At the 
symposium that succeeded the meal, wine was copiously 
drunk, f Conversation, music, or games amused the com- 
pany. They used no knives or forks; hence, the food was 
served cut up into pieces, which were taken up with the 
fingers. Convivial feasts were frequent ; and of these the 

* These household gods were the daimones, corresponding to the Lares and 
Penates of the Romans. "The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors of each 
family, who exercised after death a protecting power over the well-being and 
prosperity of the family to which they had in life belonged. The place of honor 
beside the hearth was occupied by the statue of the Lar of the house, who was 
supposed to have been the founder of the family. This statue was the object of 
profound veneration, and was honored on all occasions by every member of the 
family. The first act of a bride on entering her new abode was to do homage to 
the Lar." The Penates were deities selected by each family for special protection 
and guardianship. If, for example, a child was born during the festival of Vesta, 
that goddess was assumed as its special guardian. If a youth excelled in business 
talent, Mercury was often selected as his guardian deity; if in music, Apollo; 
and so on. These then became the patron deities of the household, and their 
images adorned the hearth. There were also evil spirits, called Lemures, who 
were believed to haunt their former abodes, their crimes depriving them of rest. 
To propitiate these, the festival called Lemura'Ua was instituted by the Romans. 

+ The wine was not used as drawn from the flasks, being mixed with water in a 
_ large vessel, like a punch-bowl. A person, called the symposiarcJi, was selected 
by the company to regulate the drinking, and prevent excess. 



Grecian CimUzaUon. 



169 



symposium formed the principal part. From these dinner 
and drinking parties the women of the house 
were excluded; but music and dancing were per- 



formed in the presence of the guests by hired artists, often 
females. The company were expected 
to be dressed in their most elegant 
attire, with wreaths of flowers on their 
heads ; and, during the feast, they 
reclined on couches, before which small 
tables were placed. Plato and Xeno- 
phon have left in their works (the 
Symposia) vivid descriptions of these 
banquets. 

150. The costume of males and 
females, among the Greeks, did not 
differ as much as with us. It con- 
sisted essentially of an 
inner and outer covering. 




Costume. 



The former was a loose dress (cJiiton) 
of woolen or linen, worn short by men, 
but extending down to the feet of 
women. As the outer covering of the 
latter did not entirely envelop the 
body, being something like a sliawl, 
this under-dress was often highly orna- 
mented, and consisted of the richest 
material. The outer garment of men 
consisted of a large piece of cloth, 
worn in graceful folds, as seen in the 
statues, being so coiled on the shoulders 
as to leave the right arm free. This was called by the Greeks 
the M-mat'i-on; by the Romans, the paVliwn. It was often 
fringed or otherwise ornamented. Usually it was thrown over 
the left shoulder, then drawn behind the back and under the 
right arm, and then thrown over the left shoulder again. 



mill III I ii|i'ii,iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!l'i!illilll 

Athenian Female Costume. 



170 



Ancient History. 



Sometimes it was fastened on the right shoulder by a button 
or brooch; it was then called the chlam'ys, or scarf. The 
Women had a great variety of modes of dressing their hair. 
Coverings for the feet were worn only out of doors. These 
varied from the simple sandal to a full covering, like the 
modern gaiter or short boot. The ladies adorned themselves 
with jewelry of various forms, often of very beautiful and 
artistic designs.* 




Earrings, Bracelets, Necklaces, etc. 

151. Gymnasiums, or places for exercise, were provided 
at the public expense. These included provision for the 
physical and also the intellectual training of 
youth. The exercises consisted of running, leap- 



Gymnasiums. 



ing, throwing the javelin or the discus, or quoit, shooting 
with the bow and arrow, wrestling, and boxing. The ob- 
ject was to cultivate physical vigor, and thus to make the 

* The cut represents articles of this description found in various parts of Greece: 
hair-pin (a), ear-rings and pendant (6, c, d, /), armlets ((/, h), necklaces {e, i). The 
form of the coiled serpent was a favorite one for armlets as well as for rings 
used for the lower limbs. 



Grecian Civilization. 171 

citizens able-bodied soldiers, when their military services 
were needed. But in the later years, the gymnasiums de- 
generated into mere lounging places, or pleasure grounds. 
The porticoes were the resort of philosophers, rhetoricians, 
and sophists (learned men), who discussed in public moral 
and metaphysical questions, which interested so much the 
Greek mind. 

162. Boys were generally instructed in schools; but those 
of wealthy parents had also a jimdagogue, or private tutor, 
whose office it was to watch over them when out 
of school. He was rather a guardian than a 



Education. 



teacher, and was usually selected from the slaves. The 
branches taught included the reading of the poets, from whose 
works passages were committed to memory; also music, under 
which the Greeks comprehended singing, playing on the lyre, 
and the recitation of poetical compositions. At the age of 
eighteen or twenty, the sons of the affluent often attended 
lectures on philosophy, oratory, etc., in the Lyceum, Academy, 
or other institution.* 

153. Women were not treated by the Greeks as entitled to 
the consideration due to the other sex, being accorded only a 
position between freemen and slaves. They re- 
ceived only a scanty education at home, and were 
expected to devote themselves to weaving, spin 



Treatment of 
females. 



ning, and other household employments. They were confined 
to their own apartments, being permitted but rarely to leave 
the house. They had the management of the servants, who 
were slaves ; and were expected to take care of the sick. 
Marriages were usually arranged by the parents, and dowries 
were always expected. There was, however, a class of women, 

+ Aristophanes represents, in one of his plays, " all the boys of Athens going in 
crowds to their schools early in the morning, and not even deterred by the heaviest 
snow. He describes the strict supervision and discipline under which they were 
kept, how every gesture was watched, and every transgression strictly punished. 
He also lauds the graceful gymnastic exercises, and the fine bodily condition 
which this training had produced."— iV/a/jo^j/'s Social Life in Greece. 



173 Ancient History. 



called He-tce'rce, principally foreigners, wlio lived in a state of 
greater social freedom, occupying houses of their own, and 
receiving guests and visitors of both sexes. They were usually 
distinguished not only for personal beauty and grace of man- 
ners, but for literary genius and culture, and are spoken of 
as the '^most witty and brilliant talkers at Athens." To this 
class belonged the celebrated Aspasia, the friend and after- 
ward the wife of Pericles. 

155. Slavery was a recognized institution; and slaves were 
very numerous and of all classes and grades, including do- 
mestic servants, agricultural laborers, and artisans. 
Slaves were employed by the government to exe- 



Slavery. 



cute the public works. These slaves were generally foreigners, 
or, as the Greeks called them, barbarians. Many Asiatic and 
Thracian tribes sold their children into slavery; and the buy- 
ing and selling of slaves was a regular business at Athens and 
other parts of Greece. Children born of slave women were 
invariably held as slaves. Menial slaves were almost wholly 
at the mercy of their masters and mistresses. Slaves were 
sometimes tortured to compel them to make confession of 
their guilt, or the guilt of their masters.* 

156. The industrial arts and occupations of the Greeks 

were numerous and complicated. They worked the mines of 

j silver, copper, and iron, and obtained marble and 

other building stone from the quarries. Their 



manufacturing industries included spinning and weaving, 
pottery, the making of arms and armor, gold and silver orna- 
ments, hardware of various kinds, furniture, etc. All these 
employed large numbers of people ; besides whom were the 
shopkeepers, tradesmen, merchants, and agriculturists. The 
wholesale trade of Athens was at the seaport, Piraeus; but 



* " It was not the custom to torture slaves who gave evidence to a fact, but only 
if they denied any knowledge, or appeared to suppress it in the interest of their 
master. On the other hand, it was common enough to torture female slaves, and 
also free men," — Mahaffy's Social Life in Greece, 



Grecian Cimlization. 



173 



most of the every-day retail business was carried on in the 
town-markets. * 

157. The Greeks were very fond of music, but they do not 
seem to have made much progress in it, either as a science or 
an art. They played on stringed instruments, 
such as the harp and lyre, and simple wind instru- 
ments, as the double and simple pipe ; but these were too 
poor to afford much melody. Among the Athenians, par- 
ticularly, musical ac- 



Music. 




complisliments were 
very highly prized ; 
and as a source of 
entertainment music 
was generally culti- 
vated. At feasts and 
social gatherings, fe- 
male musicians were 
hired to heighten the 
enjoyment of the 
guests. In the cut we have a representation of performers on 
the lyre, the cithara, and a kind of harp {trigdnon).\ 



* The following is a picturesque description of a market scene at Athens:— 
" All the wants of the day, from barley -groats up to the most dainty fish, from 
garlic to the incense of the gods; clear pure oil, and the most exquisite ointments; 
fresh-made cheese, and the sweet honey of the bees of Hymettus; cooks ready to 
1 e hired; slaves, male and female, on sale— all and several were to be found in 
abundance at their customary stands in the market-place. There were others who 
went about crying their wares; while, every now and then, a public crier crossed 
the grounds, announcing with stentorian voice the arrival of some goods to be 
sold, or the sale of some house, or perhaps a reward for the apprehension of a 
robber or runaway slave. Slaves of both sexes, as well as freemen, kept walking 
up and down, bargaining, and inspecting the stalls in search of their daily require- 
ments. "—i?ec/jer's Char ides. 

t The word nmsic is here used in its modern sense; but with the Greeks it had a 
much wider meaning. " It comprehended," says Grote, " evei-ything appertaining 
to the Nine Muses; not merely learning the use of the lyre, or how to bear part in 
a chorus, but also the hearing, learning, and repeating of poetical compositions, as 
well as the practice of exact and elegant pronunciation ; which latter accomplish- 
ment, in a language like the Greek, must have been far more difficult to acquire 
than it is in any modern European language."" 



174 Ancient History. 



158. The Greeks were very attentive to the rites of sepul- 
ture; for when the remains were nnburied, it was 
thought the soul wandered in Hades without rest, 



Funeral rites, 



not being permitted to cross the river Styx into the realms 
of hap2)iness.* Hence, immediately after death, a small coin 
{ololus) was placed in the mouth of the deceased to pay the 
ferryman Charon for taking his shade across the dark river. 
On the day of the funeral, the body was carried out, ac- 
companied by the relatives and friends as mourners, with 
hired women making lamentations, and a chorus of flute- 
players. The remains were either burned or buried; and in 
the latter case graves, vaults, or tombs were used for the final 
disposition of the body. For the burning of the body, piles of 
wood called purm (pyres) were used, and oils and perfumes 
were thrown into the flames. When the pyre had burned 
down, the remains were extinguished with wine, and the 
bones were collected, washed with wine and oil, and placed in 
urns. The latter were sometimes made of gold. The bodies 
not burned were buried in coffins usually made of baked clay 
or earthenware. Vases and various other articles were depos- 
ited in the grave with the deceased. At certain times, sacrifice 
was performed at the tomb, and flowers were brought to deco- 
rate the grave. 

* Thus in Homer's Iliad, the phantom of Patroclus appears to his friend Achilles 
in a Tision, and entreats burial: 

" Let my pale corse the rites of burial know, 
And give me entrance to the realms below: 
Till then the spirit finds no resting-place, 
But here and there the unbodied specters chase 
The vagrant dead around the dark abode, 
Forbid to cross the irremeable flood."— Pope's Homer. 
In the regions of Hades, there were four great rivers, three of which had to be 
crossed by all the spirits of the dead,— Ach'eron (sorrow), Cocy'tus (lamentation), and 
Styx (intense darkness), the sacred stream which flowed nine times round these 
realms. On the opposite bank of Styx, was the tribunal of Minos, the supreme judge^ 
before whom all had to appear, and who, after listening to a confession of their 
earthly deeds, pronounced sentence upon them. The happy spirits passed into Ely- 
sium, a blissful region filled with everything to charm the senses and please the 
imagination; the wicked were condemned to abide in the gloomy realms of despair. 



Remew Outline. 



175. 



Review Outline. 



Chronology. 



First Period, 
from the earliest 
times to 776 b.c. 



Troy burned, 

1184 B.C. 
Cecrops at Athens, 

1550 B.C. 
Cadmus in Boeotia, 

1492 B.C. 

Pelops, 1300 B.C. 

Migrations of the 

tribes, 1200 b.c. 



Dorian migration, 
1124 B.C. 

Second Period, 
from 776 B.C. to 
500 B.C. 
About 776 B.C. 
Messenian wars, 
743-723 B.C. 
685-668 B.C. 

624 B.C. 

594 B.C. 

560-510 B.C. 

510 B.C. 



The history of Greece during the first period is 
legendary or traditional. It refers to the Pelasgi 
and other early races, the remains of whose 
architecture still exist. It abounds in stories of 
mythical heroes, such as Hercules, Theseus, etc. ; 
and hence is called the Heroic Age. There are 
many events, such as the Argouautic Expedition 
and the Trojan War, which the poets used as the 
basis of their poems. Foreign colonies were 
planted in different parts of Greece during this 
early period — of the Egyptians, under Cecrops, at 
Athens ; of the Phoenicians, under Cadmus, in 
Boeotia; of the Phrygians, under Pelops, in the 
Peloponnesus. 

To this succeeded the great migratory movement, 
which resulted in the settlement of the Dorians 
in the Peloponnesus, the lonians in Attica, and 
the establishment of the JEolian, Ionian, and 
Dorian colonies in Asia Minor. During the later 
Dorian migration Codrus, the last king of Athens, 
sacrificed his life for his country. 

At the second period the authentic history of Greece 
begins— at the date of the first Olympiad (776 B.C.). 
The principal events of this period were: 

The legislation of Lycurgus at Sparta. 

The first and second Messenian wars, between 
Sparta and Messenia. 

After centuries of anarchy, Draco attempted to 
construct a code of laws for Athens. 

The laws of Solon— the institution of Archons. 

The usurpation of Pisistratus and his sons Hippias 
and Hipparchus. 

The administration of Cleislhenes, and the institu- 
tion of the Ostracism. 



176 



Ancient History. 



650-500 B.C. 
625-585 B.C. 
Third Period, 

500-449 B.C. 
485 B.C. 
Persian War, 

492-449 B.C. 
492 B.C. 



490 B.C. 
490-480 B.C. 



483 B.C. 



480 B.C. 
479 B.C. 

471 B.C. 



471 B.C. 
468 B.C. 



461 B.C. 
Age of Pericles, 

461-429 B.C. 

449 B.C. 

Fourth Period, 

449-358 B.C. 

447 B.C. 

431-404 B.C. 



Age of Despots in Greece. 

Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 

Revolt of tlie Ionian colonies against Persia. This 
revolt lasted six years, and euded in the taking 
of Miletus, and the subjugation of the colonies. 

The aid given by Athens to the lonians drew down 
the wrath of Darius upon all Greece. This led to 
the naval expedition of Mardonius, which was 
wrecked at Mt. Athos ; and the expedition of 
Datis and Artaphernes, which was defeated by 
the Athenians in the battle of Marathon. 

Themistocles and Aristides became rivals for popu- 
lar favor at Athens during this period, but Aris- 
tides was banished by the Ostracism. 

Xerxes, the successor of Darius, attacked Greece 
with an immense fleet and army. The fleet was 
defeated at Salamis. The army was checked at 
Thermopylae, by Leonidas; and was defeated at 
Platea, by Pausanias. The latter was afterward 
found guilty of treason and put to death. This led 
to the formation of an Ionian league, called the 
"Confederacy of Delos," under the leadership of 
Athens, and directed by Aristides. It lasted 
about 70 years. 

Themistocles, being implicated in the treason of Pau- 
sanias, was ostracized. 

The glorious career of Aristides was terminated by 
his death. 

The government of Athens was for a few years 
administered by Cimon, the son of Miltiades ; 
but Pericles, having caused his banishment, 
assumed the control of affairs, which he retained 
till hisjdeath (429 B.C.). 

Termination of the Persian war, after an Athenian 
victory at Cyprus. 

Rebellion of Boeotia, and defeat of the Athenians at 
Coroneia. 

The rivalship between Athens and Sparta finally 
brought on the Peloponnesian War — between the 
Ionian and Dorian states, led by Athens and 



Beoiew Outline. 



Ill 



429 B.C. 
413 B.C. 
405 B.C. 

404 B.C. 
403 B.C. 

Retreat of the Ten 
Thousaud, 

401 B.C. 

399 B.C. 



Battle of Coronea, 
394 B.C. 

Peace of Antal- 

cidas, 387 B.C. 

Battle of Leuctra, 

371 B.C. 

Battle of Man tinea, 

362 B.C. 

Fifth Period, 

338-301 B.C. 
Social \Yar, 

358-355 B.C. 
Sacred war, 

357-346 B.C. 
Battle of CUigero- 
nea, 338 B.C. 
Death of Philip. 

336 B.C. 

Battle of Granicus, 

334 B.C. 

Of Issus, 333 B.C. 

Of Arbela, 331 B.C. 



Sparta respectively. It lasted twenty-seven years, 
the chief events being: 

The plague at Athens, and death of Pericles. 

The defeat of Nicias at Syracuse. 

The destruction of the Athenian fleet under Conon, 
by Lysauder, at ^gospcjtamos. 

Final defeat of Athens; capture of the city. 

The magistrates called the Thirty Tyrants were ex- 
pelled by Thrasybulus. 

The expedition of Cyrus the Younger and the 
famous retreat of the Ten Thousand, under 
Xenophon, was an episode of this period. 

Socrates was put to death at Athens on account of 
his religious opinions, 

Agesilaus, a Spartan king and general, defended 
his country against a league formed by Athens, 
Thebes, and other states, their combined forces 
being defeated at Coronea ; but the same year 
Athens regained her naval supremacy by the vic- 
tory of Conon over the Spartan fleet, at Cnidus. 
A few years after, the Spartans negotiated a dis- 
graceful treaty with the Persians through their 
emissary Antalcidas. In a war between Thebes 
and Sparta, Epaminondas gained two glorious 
victories, one at Leuctra, and the other at Man- 
tinea, in which he was mortally wounded. 
A revolt of the Athenian allies brought on the 
Social War, which was followed by the Sacred 
War, in which Philip of Macedon was enabled to 
interfere in the affairs of Greece; and subsequent- 
ly defeated the forces of Thebes and Athens at 
Chseronea. 
After the death offhilip, Alexander ascended the 
throne of Macedonia; and having crushed all 
opposition in Greece, set out to conquer Persia. 
He defeated the Persians at the Granicus, then in 
the battle of Issus; and finally at Arbela, which 
decided the war, and gave Persia to the Mace- 
donian .conqueror. He extended his conquests 
further to the East, crossing the Indus ; but his 



178 



Ancient History. 



323 B.C. 

Battle of Lamia, 
322 B.C. 



Battle of Ipsus, 

301 B.C. 
Sixth Period, 

301-146 B.C. 

286 B.C. 

Achaean League, 
under Aratus, 

243 B.C. 

Victory of Philo- 

poemen over the 

Spartans and the 

Romans, 207 B.C. 

183 B.C. 

197 B.C. 



168 B.C. 

146 B.C. 

Kingdom of the 
SeleucidcB, 

312-65 B.C. 



Kingdom of the 
Ptolemies, 

823-30 B.C. 



soldiers, worn out with their toils, compelled him 
to return. 

Alexander died at Babylon, at the age of 32. 

This was followed by the Lamian war, caused by 
the attempt of Athens to regain her freedom; 
but it was closed by the defeat of Leosthenes, the 
Athenian general, at Lamia. 

A series of conflicts ensued among the ' ' successors 
of Alexander," terminating for a while in the 
battle of Ipsus, after which Greece and Macedonia 
were assigned to Cassauder; Egypt to Ptolemy; 
the greatest part of Asia Minor to Lysimachus; 
and the eastern part, from the Syrian coast to the 
Euphrates, to Seleucus. Subsequently, Lysi- 
machus conquered Macedonia, but being after- 
ward defeated by Seleucus, the latter obtained 
nearly the whole of Alexander's empire, except 
Egypt, which was under the rule of Ptolemy. 

The Grecian states formed several leagues to defend 
themselves against the tyranny of the Macedonian 
kings, the chief of these being the Achsean and 
^toiian leagues. The former, under Aratus and 
Philopoemen, gained great glory. Philopoemen 
was barbarously put to death by the Messenians. 

Philip, king of Macedon, was defeated by the Ro- 
mans, in the famous battle of Cynoscephalse; and, 
some years afterward, the latter gained a victory 
over Perseus, the last king of Macedon, in the 
battle of Pydna. Macedonia then became a 
Roman province; and, twenty-two years later, 
Greece was finally subdued by the Romans. 

The kingdom of the Seleucida3 was founded by 
Seleucus I. {Nicator), and lasted about two and a 
half centuries. Its capital was Antioch. Its chief 
monarchs, after Seleucus I., were Antiochus I. 
(Soter) and Antiochus III. (the Great). There 
were, in the whole dynasty, twenty kings. 

The kingdom of the Ptolemies founded by Ptolemy 
Lagi, one of Alexander's generals, lasted under 
the same line of monarchs for nearly three cenr 



Remew Outline. 



179 



Death of Cleopa- 
tra. 30 B.C. 



283-133 B.C. 

400-74 B.C. 

400-102 B.C. 

363-63 B.C. 

315 B.C.-17 A.D. 
190 B.C.-114 A.D. 

255-160 B.C. 
255 B.C.-226 A.D. 



turies. Alexandria was enlarged and enriched, 
and became the greatest eniporiiini in the world. 
Science, art, and literature flourished under the 
Ptolemies. The Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt 
became a Roman province after Cleopatra, the 
last queen, with Antony, had been defeated by 
the Romans, under Octavius, at Actium. 

The minor kingdoms formed out of the Macedonian 
Empire were the following: 

Pergamus, founded by an ofBcer of Lysimachus; 
became a Roman province. 

Bithynia, bequeathed to the Romans. 

Papldagonia, conquered by Mithridates. 

Pontus, independent till absorbed by the Romans, 

Cappadocia, formed after revolt from Macedonia; 
conquered by the Romans. 

Armenia, revolted from Antiochus the Great; con- 
quered by the Romans. 

Bactria, satrapy of Persia; a province of the Syrian 
Empire; then independent, till overwhelmed by 
the Parthian s. 

Parthia, formed by revolt from the Syrian Empire; 
conquered by the later Persians. 



Topical Review. 



STATESMEN AND GENERALS. 

In what period did they live? 
What was their character? 
With irhat events loere they con- 
nected? 

PAGE 

Lycurgus 93 

Solon 96 

Pisistratus 97 

Clisthenes 98 

Miltiades 100, 101 

Leonidas 101, 102 

Themistocles 103, 104 



PAGE 

Aristides 103, 104, 105 

Paiisanias 103 

Cimon 106, 107 

Pericles 106, 107, 109 

Alcibiades 110 

Lysander Ill 

Epaminondas 115, 116 

Agesilaus 114, 115 

Leosthenes 125 

Phocion 125 

Agis 124, 125 

Aratus 131 

Philopoemen 132, 133 



180 



Ancient History. 



POETS. 

When did they live? 

What tuorks did they write? 

Character of their ivritinqs? 

PAGE 

Homer ... 90, 155 

Hesiod 155 

Archilochus 155 

Tyrtseus 155 

Arion 155 

Alcaeus 155 

Sappho 155 

Anacreon 155 

Simonides 156 

Pindar 156 

^schylus 156 

Sophocles 157 

Euripides 157 

Theocritus 160 

Bion 160 

Moschus 160 

Apollonius Rhodius 160 

PHILOSOPHERS. 

When did they live? 
Character of their teachings? 

Thales of Miletus 156 

Xenophanes 156 

Pythagoras 156 

Socrates Ill, 112, 1.57 

Plato 158 

Anaxagoras » 158 

Xenocrates 158 

Diogenes 158 

Aristippus 158 

Democritus 158 

Epicurus 158 

Zeno 158 

Aristotle 159 

Euclid 160 

Apollonius (Math.) 161 

Ptolemy 161 

HISTORIANS. 

When did they live? 
Wliat did they write? 

'Herodotus 157 

Thucydides 1.57 

Xenophon 157 



PAGE 

Polybius 161 

Dionysius Halicarnassus 161 

Diodorus Siculus 161 

j Plutarch 161 

I Josephus 161 

ARTISTS. 

When did tliey live? 

For what works tvere they noted? 

Phidias 164, 165 

Callimachus 164 

Polycletus 165 

Myron 165 

Praxitiles 165 

Polygnotus 165 

Zeuxis 16G 

Parrhasius 166 

Apelles 166 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

When did they live? 
For what noted? 

Demosthenes 160 

^schines 160 

Isocrates 160 

Lysias , 160 

Aristophanes 160 

Aristarchus 160 

Galen 161 

Strabo 161 

Lucian 161 

DECISIVE BATTLES. 

When tvere they fought? 
Wit at led to them? 
Wliat resulted therefrom? 

Marathon 100 

Salamis 102 

Platsea 103 

^gospotamos Ill 

Cunaxa 113 

Chseronea 119 

Arbela 119 

Lamia 125 

Cynoscephalse 132 

Pydna 133 

Actium 141 



CHAPTER III. 
Roman History. 



SECTION I. 

Early History of Italy. 

1. The people who dwelt in Italy at the earliest times to 
which our knowledge extends consisted principally of five 
races: the Li-gu'ri-ans, the Venetians, the I-a-pyg'- 
ians, the Italians proper, and the E-trus'cans. Of 



Early races. 



these the first and second were weak and comparatively un- 
important, since they exerted but little influence upon the 
general history of Italy. The lapygians, who were probably 
among the earliest settlers, inhabited the extreme south-east- 
ern part of the peninsula, called Mes-sa'pi-a by the 
Greeks, by the Romans Ca-la'bri-a. They were. 



lapygians. 



\ as their language denotes, nearly related to the Greeks, and 
probably emigrated from Greece into southern Italy. 

2. The Italians proper occupied nearly the whole of cen- 
tral Italy. They appear to have come from the north, and to 
have pressed back the semi-Greek settlers of the 
southern portion of the peninsula. They com- 



prised two branch stocks — the Latins and the Umbro-Sabel'- 
lians, the latter including the Um'brians, Sa'bines, Sam-ni'tes, 
Sabellians, Os'cans, and other divisions or offshoots. The 

Geographical Study. 
What rvas the situation of: liATivM^ Etruria? Umbria? Calabria? Campania? 
Territory of the Sabines? Cisalpine Gaul? Rubicon R. ? Metaurus R. ? Tiber R.? 
Rome? Ostia? Tusculum? Clusium? Veii? Brundisium? Neapolis (Naples)? 
Cumge? Syracuse? Messana? Agrigentum? Rhegium? Croton? Sybaris? Taren- 
tum? Beneventum? 



18^ Ancient Hisiofi). 



Latins settled near the Tiber, and, being hemmed in by sur- 
rounding races, were confined to a phxin, about 
700 square miles in extent, between the Tiber 



and the spurs of the Apennines on the north, and the Alban 
hills on the south. The Umbrians entered Italy later than 
the Latins, and settled first in E-tru'ria, from which they 
spread over the eastern part of the peninsula. [See maj) VI.] 
3. The Etrus'cans, or Etrurians, were at first located to the 
north of the Po, but afterward occupied the plain of that 
river, where they had a confederacy of twelve 
cities. Later, they entered Etruria, pressing the 



Umbrians to the east, or subduing them ; and there they 
formed a second confederacy, also of twelve members. These 
people, unlike the lapygians and the Italians, were probably 
of Turanian origin. They were a stout, muscular race, short 
in stature, with large heads and thick arms, presenting a 
marked contrast to the graceful, slender Italians. They had 
many superstitions, and were given to divination and magic; 
but they made rapid advancement in civilization, and became 
the best architects of all the races in Italy.* They also showed 
great energy in maritime enterprise, as well as skill in the 
mechanic arts.f 

4. The Romans belonged to the Italic race. They nour- 
ished the tradition in after times that they were the descend- 
ants of the Trojan prince ^-ne'as, who escaped 
from the conflagration of Troy, and sailed with a 
colony to Italy, landing on the shores of Latium (la¥slie-um), 
the seat of the Latin race at that time. It is this legend that 
forms the plot of Virgil's beautiful poem, the ^-ne'id. But 
for this there is no more historical evidence than there is for the 

* The invention of the arch, in its proper construction, has been attributed to 
the Etruscans, as also the composition of an order of architecture called the 
Tuscan, a species of simple Doric. The early Romans employed Etruscan archi- 
tects in erecting their buildings. 

t The Tuscans or Etruscans, the most powerful nation in the north, differed in 
race completely from all the other inhabitants. 



Romans. 



Barly History of Italy. 183 

story of the vestal Rhe'a, Silvia, the daughter of a Latin king, 
and her twins Eom'u-lus and Ke'mus, whose father was Mars. 
This legend states that Rhea was put to death for 
having violated her vow of chastity, and that her 
two infant sons were cast out to die, but that they 



Romulus and 
Remus. 



were suckled by a she-wolf, until they were found by a shep- 
herd, who carried them home and educated them; and that, 
on arriving at manhood, they discovered their true origin, 
restored their grandfather to the throne of Alba Longa, from 
which he had been dethroned by his brother, and afterward 
founded a new city, which was called Rome, after Romulus.* 



Synopsis of the Kaces of Italy. 



1. ARYAN OR INDO-ETJROPEAN. 

I. Iapygian. 
II. Italian. 

1. Latins. 

2. Umbro-Sabellians. 

a. Umbrians. 

h. Sabellians [Samnites, Oscans, Sabines, 
Marsi, Volsci, etc.]. 

2. TURANIAN 0). 

I. Etruscans. 

* " When Romulus and Remus grew up, the herdsmen of the Palatine Hill 
chanced to have a quarrel with the herdsmen of Numitor [the dethroned king], 
who stalled their cattle on the hill Aventinus. Numitor's herdsmen laid an am- 
bush, and Remus fell into it, and was taken and carried off to Alba. But when the 
young man was brought before Numitor, he was struck with his noble air and 
bearing, and asked him who he was. And when Remus told him of his birth, and 
how he had been saved from death, together with his brother, Numitor marveled, 
and thought whether this might not be his own daughter's [Rhea's] child. In the 
mean while, Faustulus [the adopted father] and Romulus hastened to Alba to de- 
liver Remus; and by the help of the young men of the Palatine Hill, who had been 
used to follow him and his brother, Romulus took the city, and AmuUus [the 
usurper] Avas killed ; and Numitor was made king, and owned Romulus and Remus 
to be born of his o-wti blood."— ^j-uo/crs History of Rome. 



184 Ancient History. 

SECTION 11. 

The KoMAjq- Kingdom. 

6. Setting aside the old legend regarding the foundation 
of Rome, as unsupported by any historical evidence, we may 
conclude, from what history tells us, that there was a settle- 
ment made by one of the Latin tribes, called the 
Ram'nians, or Romans, on the Pal'a-tine hill, on 
the left bank of the Tiber, about eighteen miles 



Foundation of 
Ronne. 



from its mouth (753 B.C.). This settlement appears to have 
been soon joined by two of the other Latin cantons,* and from 
its advantageous situation it rapidly increased in influence and 
numbers. Subordinate at first to Alba Longa (the long white 
city), the metropolis of the Latin confederacy, it finally, after 
a long contest, subdued and destroyed that ancient city, and 
assumed the headship of Latium. 

6. The government of Rome, at first, was like that of all 
the otlier Latin cantons. All the heads of families partici- 
pated on an equal footing in the rights of citi- 
zenship. By these the king was chosen for life. 



Governmeht. 



and he had the privilege of selecting a council of elders {pa'- 
tres), called the senate. In the public assemblies {comitia 
miriata), convened by the king, the citizens enacted laws, and 
gave their assent to war or peace, f The transfer of people to 

* Among the Latins, " the households were united, by ties of blood or by near- 
ness of locality, into clans; and the householders' dwellings formed the clan- 
villages, which were united, and all formed a canton. Each canton had a common 
center, where justice was administered and the markets held. Around this cen- 
tral town, which was always situated on an elevated and easily defensible position, 
suburbs grew up, which formed the nucleus of the early Latin towns. The different 
Latin cantons united into a league, with Alba Longa at their head, known as the 
league of the thirty Latin cities."— Le/g/ifojr's History of Rome. 

t The citizens were divided into three tribes, each tribe into ten curiae, each 
curia into ten gentes, and each gens into ten households. According to this scheme, 
there were 30 curia;, 300 gentes. and 3000 households, which thus formed the com- 
munity, or populus. Every household was required to furnish one foot-soldier, and 
each gens a horseman; so that the army originally consisted of 3000 foot-soldiers 
and 300 cavalry. The senate consisted of three hundred members, one for each gens. 



The Roman Kingdom. 



185 



Rome from the conquered cities of Latinm affected the popu- 
lation by introducing a new element, consisting of those who 
had no political rights or privileges. This formed 
the distinction between the patricians, or nobles, 
and the plebeians, or common people. It was the 



Patricians and 
plebeians. 



former that constituted the state; since they exercised all the 
political power, possessed the honors, and rendered service in 
the army. There were also clients and slaves, the former being 
bound to their patrician patrons ; the latter, held in absolute 
bondage, and bought and sold at pleasure. 

7. The history of Rome as a kingdom is traditionary, for 
most of the records of its early history were destroyed when the 
Gauls, several centuries later, burned 
the city. Seven kings, it is said, ruled 
in succession, including Romuhis, the 
reputed founder, who or- 
ganized the government 




Kings. 



Nunna. 



of the city; but even their names seem 
to be uncertain. Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us, 
the second king, was a Sabine, and, 
according to the traditions, was the 
Vicinity op Rome. founder of the religious institutions 

of the Romans. He reformed the calendar, and 

erected a temple to Janus, at the entrance of the 

forum , The gates of this temple were closed only in times 
of peace. 

8. Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us, the third king, was noted for the 
wars which he waged against the neighboring cities. He it 
was who broke the power of the Latins, and de- 
stroyed Alba. An'cus Martins {mar'she-us), the 
fourth king, the grandson of Numa, gained ad- 



Tullus 
Hostilius. 



ditional victories over the Latins and extended his conquests 
into Etruria. He built the port of Ostia, fortified the Jani- 
culan hill, and constructed the first bridge across the Tiber. 
He also settled several thousand of the conquered Latins on 



186 



Ancient History. 



the Ayentine hill at Rome, thus laying the foundation of the 
plebeian order. An Etruscan dynasty succeeded, the first of 
which, Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), 
the fifth king of Rome, was noted for the public 
buildings and other works which he caused to 
be constructed. Among these were the great sewer {do-a'ca 



Tarquin the 
Elder. 



Servius Tul 



maxima), the great circus (^Circus Maximus), and the temi3le 
of Jupiter Oapitoli'nus. The latter, however, he did not live 
to finish. He also defeated the Sabines and the Etruscans. 

9. The second of this dynasty, and the sixth king of 
Rome, was Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us, a bold and adroit usurper. He 

made important changes in the government, es- 
tablishing a new assembly (cmnitia centuria'ta), 
in which all free Romans had a voice. In this the people 

were divided into 
centuries, each cen- 
tury having one 
vote; but the num- 
ber of persons con- 
stituting a century 
depended on the 
amount of proper- 
ty they possessed. 
This arrangement, 
while admitting all, 
at least seemingly, to a share in the government, gave the pre- 
ponderance of power to the wealthy classes. Servius also 
built a wall inclosing the entire city, including all the *' seven 
hills," over which the city had gradually spread. This inclo- 
sure was about seven miles in circuit, and sufficed for many 
centuries. 

10. Tar-quin'i-us Su-per'bus (Tarquin the Proud), the 
seventh king, ruled with great arrogance, particularly toward 
the patricians ; and finally, in consequence of an infamous 
crime committed by his son Sextus, an insurrection broke 




Cloaca Maxima. 
(In its present condition, 1881.) 



The Roman Bepuhlic. 187 

out, and he and his family were driven out of the city. This 
terminated the kingdom (509 B.C.). Thus, tra- 
ditionally, the period of the kingdom was 244 
years, the average duration of each reign being 



Tarquin the 
Proud. 



about 35 years. This has been pointed out as a most improb- 
able circumstance, and as sufficient, of itself, to show the 
unreliable character of the early history.* 

Traditional Chronology of the Kings. 

B.C. Length of Reign. 

Romulus 753-716 37 years. 

(Interregnum of one year.) 

Numa Pompilius 715-676 39 " 

(Interregnum of two years.) 

Tullus Hostilius 674-642 32 " 

Ancus Martius. 642-618 24 *' 

L. Tarquinius Priscus 618-578 40 '' 

Servius Tulliiis 578-534 44 " 

Tarquinius Superbus 534-509 25 " 



SECTION III. 

The Romaic Republic. 

I. Period of Internal Struggles. 

11. The history of the Roman Republic, succeeding the 
regal period, for more than a century and a half is occupied 
chiefly with an account of the struggles between the Patri- 

* " The early history of Rome is indeed far more poetical than anything else in 
Latin literature. The loves of the Vestal and the God of War, the cradle laid 
among the reeds of the Tiber, the fig-tree, the she-wolf, the shepherd's cabin, the 
recognition, the fratricide, the rape of the Sabines, the death of Tarpeia, the fall of 
Hostius Hostilius, the struggle of Metius Curtius through the marsh, the women 
rushing with torn raiment and disheveled hair between their fathers and their 
husbands, the nightly meetings of Numa and the Nymph bj" the well in the sacred 
grove, the fight of the three Romans and the three Albans, the purchase of the 
Sibylline books, the crime of Tullia, the simulated madness of Brutus, the ambigu- 



188 Ancient History. 



cian and Plebeian orders, and of the growth of the Roman con- 
stitution and laws. After the expulsion of the kings, two 
magistrates, called consuls, were annually elected, 
to whom was intrusted the chief executive author- 



Consuls. 



ity. The duties and powers of the consuls were similar to 
those of the kings, and for nearly 150 years they were chosen 
exclusively from the patricians. As civil officers their power 
was almost absolute, each ruling by turns; and they were the 
legally appointed generals of the army in time of war. Junius 
Brutus and Col-la-ti'nus were the first to hold the office of 
consuls. The former, often called the Elder Brutus, was a re- 
markable character. He was a nephew of Tar- 
quin; but seeing his relatives put to death by order 



Junius Brutus. 



of that jealous tyrant, he feigned to be half-witted, so that he 
might seem to be of no consequence. After the crime of 
Sextus, he threw off the mask, and by his bold and earnest 
eloquence incited the people to expel the hateful king. * 

ous reply of the Delphian oracle to the Tarquins, the wrongs of Lucretia, the 
heroic actions of Horatius Codes, of Scaevola, and of Clcelia, the battle of Regillus 
won by the aid of Castor and Pollux, the fall of Cremera, the touching story of 
Coriolanus, the still more touching story of Virginia, the wild legend about the 
draining of the Alban lake, the combat between Valerius Corvus and the gigantic 
Gaul, are among the many instances which will at once suggest themselves to 
every reader."— ilfaca(«Za?/. 

* The following incident of the legendaiy history of the period illustrates the 
stern virtue of this remarkable man: " Then King Tarquinius sent to Rome to ask 
for all the goods that had belonged to him ; and the Senate, after a while, decreed 
that the goods should be given back. But those whom he had sent to Rome to ask 
for his goods, had meetings with many young men of noble biith, and a plot was 
laid to bring back King Tarquinius. But a slave happened to overhear them talk- 
ing together, and when he knew that the letters were to be given to the messengers 
of Tarquinius, he went and told all that he had heard to Brutus and to Publius 
Valerius. Then they came and seized the young men and their letters, and so the 
plot was broken up. Then Brutus bade the lictors to bind his own two sons, Titus 
and Tiberius, together with the others, and to scourge them with rods according to 
the law. And after they had been scourged, the lictors struck off their heads with 
their axes, before the eyes of their father; and Brutus neither stii-red from his 
seat, nor turned away his eyes from the sight; yet men saw, as they looked on 
him, that his heart was grieving inwardly over his children. Then they marveled 
at him, because he had loved justice more than his own blood, and had not spared 
his own children, when they had been false to their country and had offended 
against the law."— ..4rnoZd\s History of Rome. 



The Roman Republic. 189 

12. For more than twelve years after the abolition of the 
monarchy, the Komans were engaged in war with the adhe- 
rents and friends of the Tarquins. Several of the 
neighboring cities raised armies to compel the 
Romans to reinstate the king, but they were at 



Wars with the 
Tarquins. 



last all defeated, although at times they seemed to be on the 
point of accomplishing their object. The most powerful of 
these was the Etruscan monarch Lars Por'sen-na, who for 
a few years almost held the Eomans in subjection ; but 
he finally made peace with them. The famous battle of 
Re-gil'lus, in Tus'cu-lum, terminated the struggle, and the 
Tarquins finally gave up all hojoe of being restored. It was 
during this period that the first dictator* was appointed. To 
this period belong some of the most interesting stories of the 
legendary history; such as that of Ho-ra'tius {-she-us), who 
kept the bridge against the whole Tuscan army; 
of Mu'cius Scaevola {se'vo-lah) and Castor and 



Legends. 



Pollux at Lake Regillus. A few of these are here given. 
Legends of the Period of the Tarquins. 

Brutus and the Oracle. On one occasion King Tarquin was terribly 
frightened by a singular omen : a serpent glided from beneath the 
altar, at the time of sacrifice/ and devoured the entrails of the victim. 
In his alarm, the king resolved to send his two sons and his half-witted 
nephew, Junius Brutus, to Delphi to ask of the oracle an explanation of 
this dreadful portent. When the two princes had presented their costly 
offerings, they laughed at the simple .Junius, who offered only his staff"; 
but they did not know that the seeming simpleton had hollowed out the 
staff and filled it with gold. When the oracle, m response to the inquiry 
who should reign in Rome after Tarqum, had said, "He of you who 
shall first kiss his mother," the two princes agreed to draw lots for the 
privilege; but their companion, understanding the oracle better, fell as 
if by accident on leaving the temple, and kissed his mother earth. 

Death of Brutus. In a battle with tiie Etruscans, A'runs, one of the 
sons of Tarquin, seeing Brutus at tlie head of the Roman cavalry, spurred 

* A dictator was an officer vested for a limited time with an absolute and irre- 
sponsible authority. He was only appointed in times of great public peril. 



190 Ancient History. 

his horse so furiously upon him that botli fell mortally wounded from 
the effect of the charge. The Roman women mourned for Brutus an 
entire year, for they honored him as the avenger of the matron Lu-cre'- 
tia, the victim of the crime of Sextus Tarquinius. 

Horatius Codes. When Porseuna, Lars (lord) of Clusium, in Etruria, 
had reached with his army the Ja-nic'u-lum, just across the Tiber from 
Rome, it only remained for him to cross the Sublician {suh-Ush' e-an) 
bridge and capture the city. But the brave Horatius, with almost super- 
human daring, kept the Tuscan army at bay, while his comrades broke 
down the bridge behind him; then, with a fervent prayer to "Father 
Tiber" for safety, he plunged into the stream, and, amid a shower of 
arrows, swam unharmed to the opposite side. This legend was a favor- 
ite one among the Romans. It forms the subject of one of Macaulay's 
Lays of Ancient Borne. 

" When the goodman mends his armor, 

And trims his helmet plume; 
When the goodwife's shuttle merrily 

Goes flashing through the loom; 
With weeping and with laughter 

Still is the story told, 
How well Horatius kept the bridge 

In the brave days of old." 

Mucius Scaevola. While the Etruscans were besieging Rome, a young 
noble, named Mucius, entered the camp of the enemy with the determi- 
nation to kill the king. But he happened to slay the roj'^al treasurer, 
mistaking him for the king, and was immediately seized and led to the 
tent of Porsenna, who threatened him with death. Then Mucius, to 
show his contempt for pain and death, thrust his right hand into the 
flames of a burning altar, and held it there until it was burnt to ashes. 
Astonished at such fortitude, the king dismissed him without further 
harm ; but he, as if in gratitude, informed the monarch that there were 
in Rome three hundred young men, as brave as himself, who had 
solemnly vowed to take his life. The consequence was, that Porsenna, 
in great alarm, made peace with the Romans, This young man was 
ever after held in great honor, and received the name Scaevola, the Left- 
handed. 

Battle of Lake Regillus. As a last effort to regain his throne, Tarquin 
applied for aid to his son-in-law, Octavius Ma-mil'i-us, of Tusculum, 
and the Latins espoused his cause. In the long and bloody battle at 
Lake Regillus, at one time it seemed as if the Roman army was about 
to give way, when Aulus Pos-tu'mi-us, offering a prayer to the twin 



Tlie Roman Republic. 191 

deities, Castor and Pollux, vowed to build a temple in their honor if 
they would come to the aid of the Romans. But a short time elapsed, 

" When he was aware of a princely pair, 

That rode at his right hand. 
So Uke they were, no mortal 

Might one from the other know; 
White as snow their armor was, 

Their steeds were white as snow." 

Another charge was made, under this more than mortal leadership, 
and the Latins fled. That same evening two young men rode into Rome 
on white steeds, and announced the victory. They were seen to wash 
their horses at the spring Ju-tur'na, in the Forum, and then they vanished. 

" And all the people trembled. 

And pale grew every cheek; 
And Sergius the High Pontiff 

Alone found voice to speak : 
' The Gods who live forever 

Have fought for Rome to-day 1 
These be the great Twin Brethren 

To whom the Dorians pray.' " 

13. Altliough the monarchy had been abolished, the people 
of Rome by no means enjoyed the blessings of a free govern- 
ment. All political power was in the hands of 
the patricians, and the plebeians were kept in a 
condition of great social degradation. Obliged to 



Condition of 
the plebeians. 



borrow money of their rich neighbors, they were charged 
enormous rates of interest, and when unable to pay, were 
delivered by the cruel laws to the mercy of their creditors, 
who deprived them of their lands, and reduced them to the 
condition of serfs or slaves.* Nevertheless, they were com- 
pelled to perform military duty whenever called upon by the 

* " When a Roman plebeian found himself involved in a debt which he could not 
pay, his best resource was to sell himself to his creditor, on the condition that 
unless the debt were previously discharged, the creditor, at the expiration of a 
stated term, should enter into possession of his purchase. This was called, in the 
language of the Roman law, the entering into a nexiim, and the person who had 
thus conditionally sold himself was said to be 'nexus;'' that is, bound. When the 
day came, the creditor claimed possession, and the magistrates awarded it; and 
the debtor, thus given over to his purchaser, passed, with all that belonged to him, 
into his power; and as the sons were considered their father's property, they also, 
unless previously emancipated, were included in the sale, and went into slavery 
together with their father,"— /I rwoWs History of Rome. 



192 Ancient History. 



government. This state of things disheartened the plebs 

(common people), and produced in their minds a most bitter 

feeling of hatred toward the patricians. 

14. At length their condition became so wretched that 

they refused to take the field against the public enemy; but, 
leaving the city to the patricians, departed in a 
body to the Sacred Mount, about three miles 



Secession. 



distant, where they resolved to found a new city. This com- 
pelled the nobles to make some concessions. They released 
the debtors from their obligations, setting free all who had 
been made slaves, and assented to the appointment of two 
magistrates, called Trib'unes, who were to be 
chosen from the ranks of the plebeians, to hold 



Tribunes. 



Powers of 
tribunes. 



office one year, and to have the power of annulling any law of 
the Senate by pronouncing the word Veto {I forbid it). After 
this arrangement had been effected, the people returned to 
jihe city (494 B.C.). 

15. This concession on the part of the nobles, though 
important, was not so great as it appears, since the tribunes 
were elected by the assembly of the centuries 
(Comitia Centuriata), in which, according to the 
constitution of Servius Tuilius, the patricians 
could always, by means of their wealth, command a majority 
of votes. The tribunes were not invested with any of the 
ordinary duties of magistrates, their office being simply to 
protect the rights of the plebeians by their check upon the 
legislation of the Senate, that body being purely an aristo- 
cratic assemblage, and by preventing the execution of any 
law or measure of the consul which they deemed injurious to 
the interests of their order. Their persons were declared 
sacred and inviolable. The tribunes were afterward increased 
to five, and finally, in later times, to ten. By the I-cil'i-an 
law, passed the next year (493 B.C.), any person who inter- 
rupted a tribune while addressing the people might be pun- 
ished with death. 



The Roman Republic. 198 

16. Another source of trouble was the injustice of the 
nobles in seizing upon the public or conquered lands, and 
keeping them for their exclusive use; whereas, i \ 

. . i> o • rf 1 n • Agrarian laws. 

by the constitution of Servius iullius, they were 



to be divided partly among the poorer peo^^le. This kind 
of aggression continued to exist for centuries, and gave rise 
to the proposal of many exciting measures, called "agrarian 
laws," the object of which was to enforce a proper division of 
the public lands. This was the more necessary, since, when 
held in large quantities by the wealthy, the lands were culti- 
vated by slaves, and the small farmers and freemen were 
deprived of the means of existence. 

17. To correct this injustice and abuse, the consul Spu'rius 
Cassius {kash'e-us), a patrician of the highest standing, pro- 
posed the first Agrarian Law, providing for an 
equitable division of the newly acquired lands 



Spurius Cassius. 



(486 B.C.). The patricians were greatly incensed against the 
measure, but they could not prevent its enactment. The 
next year, however, an accusation was brought against Cas- 
sius, at their instigation, charging him with aiming at kingly 
power ; and he was condemned and put to death. The 
agrarian law was not enforced ; for the influence of the 
patricians was greatly strengthened by the execu- 
tion of Cassius, and the Fabian family (gens) suc- 



Fabian family. 



ceeded in usurping the consulship for ten years. They were 
at last driven out of the city, and for two years sustained 
the war of Veil [ve'yi) against Rome ; but were finally enticed 
into an ambuscade and slain (477 B.C.). 

18. The contest between the orders for the execution of 
the agrarian law was still fiercely waged; and it became 
obvious to the people that they must have bold 
and independent men as tribunes to contend 



Publilian law. 



against the unscrupulous and violent patricians. Hence, the 
tribune Vol'e-ro Pub-lil'i-us proposed a law that the tribunes 
should be elected by the plebeians themselves at the Assembly 



\ 



194 Ancient History. 



of the Tribes, instead of, as previously, by the Assembly of the 
Centuries. This measure, after great opposition, was carried 
(471 B.C.), and was a great gain to the lower order. Indeed, 
the Publilian law of Volero broke the power of the nobles, 
and virtually made Rome a democratic state. 

19. While these struggles had been going on in the city 
between the two orders, there were almost constant wars with 
the neighboring people, among whom the ^'qui-ans and 
Volscians {voVshe-ans) were the most troublesome. To this 
period belongs the story of Co-ri-o-la'nus, a patrician general, 
who acquired his surname by the capture of Oo-ri'- 
o-li, an important city of the Volscians. Having 



Coriolanus, 



great influence at Rome in consequence of the victories which 
he had gained, he insisted, during a time of famine, that no 
corn should be given to the people unless they would relin- 
quish their privileges. But the tribunes procured his banish- 
ment; and going over to the Volscians, he marched with an 
army against Rome and threatened its capture. Tlie Senate 
made several attempts to dissuade him from his revengeful 
purpose, but in vain. At last, when his mother, wife, and 
children were sent to his camp to intercede for the city, he 
relented, and retired with his army. Shortly afterward, he 
was put to death by the Volscians (488 B.C.). 

20. To a somewhat later period belongs the interesting 
legend of Cin-cin-na'tus, who, although a patrician, lived on 
a small farm which he cultivated with his own 
liands. Twice was he called from the plow to 
serve his country, once as consul and again as dictator; and 
while holding the latter office, he gained a great victory over 
the ^quians; and then, having freed Rome from danger, 
immediately resigned his great office, and returned to his 
humble agricultural labors, followed by the applause and 
blessings of all his countrymen (458 B.C.). Nearly thirty 
years afterward, when at the age of eighty, he was again called 
from his retirement to tal^e the office of dictator, 



The Roman Republic. 195 

21. During this period, while Rome was imperiled by fierce 
enemies without, the contest still raged within between the 
rival orders. Concession after concession was wrung from 
the nobles, but the people still pressed forward 
clamorous for their rights, and for just and equal 



Decemvirs. 



laws; for there was no written code to which they could 
appeal. The patricians again gave way, and allowed a com- 
mission of three to be sent to Athens and Southern Italy in 
order to study, and report on, the Grecian systems of legisla- 
tion. On their return, ten persons (Decem'virs) were appointed 
to prepare a code of laws (451 B.C.). They were also invested 
with a very large authority, superseding the other magistrates, 
and ruling by turns, each for one day. The cele- 
brated code of the Twelve Tables was the result 



Twelve Tables 



of their labors. Thus was laid the foundation of Roman juris- 
prudence. These laws were set up in a prominent place, so 
that all the people might read them; and afterward were com- 
mitted to memory by the boys in the schools. 

22. The task assigned to the Decemvirs had been so well 
performed, and they had ruled with such justice and modera- 
tion, that the office was continued for another 
year, in order that they might complete the work. 
But Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of their number. 



Appius 
Claudius. 



was a bold, ambitious, wicked man, and he succeeded in 
having elected with him those who were wedded to his inter- 
ests. The mask was soon thrown oiT; and the people found 
their lives and property entirely at the mercy of a relentless 
despot. Lucius Si-cin'ni-us Den-ta'tus, a brave soldier and 
former tribune, spoke loudly against this usurpation, and was 
waylaid and murdered. A dreadful outrage * perpetrated by 

* This was the attempt which Appius made to obtain possession of Virginia, a 
beautiful maiden, the daughter of a soldier named Virginius. To accomplish 
his object Appius induced one of his clients to swear that she was the daughter of 
one of his slaves; and she was seized and brought before the Decemvir's tribunal, 
where the client made his claim, which Appius at once decided in his favor 
Virginius, who had hastened to the spot, seeing no way left to save his daughter 



196 Ancient History. 



Appius Claudius at last caused a revolt of the army; and the 
tyrants were compelled to abdicate. The former government 
was then restored (449 B.C.). Appius Claudius put an end to 
his life while in prison. 

23. The right of intermarriage between the patricians and 
plebeians being forbidden, a law was introduced by one of the 
tribunes (445 B.C.) making such marriages legal. 
This, after violent opposition, was passed, and was 
immediately followed by a proposal to open the 



Military 
tribunes. 



consulship to the plebeians. To put an end to the strife and 
excitement which this produced, the duties of consuls were 
intrusted to officers called military trihunes, to be elected by 
the Assembly of the Centuries, both patricians and plebeians 
being eligible to the office. The Senate, however, could order 
the election of consuls, instead of the tribunes, for any year. 
These officers continued to be elected with various intermis- 
sions until 367 B.C., when, by the Li-cin'ian Lmv, plebeians 
were admitted to the consulship. About this time, also, two 
magistrates, called Censors, were appointed for the purpose of 
taking the census (445 B.C.).* 

24. The Romans having besieged Veii, a large and power- 
ful city of E-tru'ri-a, for several years, were on the point of 
suffering a disastrous defeat, when Fu'ri-us Oa- 
mil'lus, being appointed dictator, caused a tunnel 
to be dug, by means of which the soldiers were 



Furius 
Camillus. 



admitted into the citadel, and the city was taken and destroyed 
(396 B.C.). Veii being a larger and more magnificent city than 
Rome itself, and more favorably situated, very many of the 

from dishonor, plunged a knife into her bosom, and rushing from the city, told his 
tale of woe to the army. This aroused the indignation of the soldiers, and they 
revolted, encamping on the Aventine at first : but being afterward joined by the 
other army, they took up a position on the Sacred Mount. The story of Virginia 
forms the subject of one of Macaulay 's Lays of Ancient Borne. 

* The powers and duties were afterward greatly extended ; for they exercised a 
general control over the finances of the state, the management of the public land^ 
and the farming of the taxes, as well as a general supervision over the public and 
private life of every citizen. 



1 



The Roman Republic. 



197 



Romans were inclined to abandon their own city and migrate 
thither. From this, however, they were finally dissuaded by 
the patricians. Camillus, being accused of appropriating the 
spoils of the conquered city to his own use, was driven into 
exile (391 B.C.). The conquest of Veii made an important 
addition to the Roman territory. Four new tribes were 
formed; and the wealth acquired from the spoils gave a new 
impulse to industry and trade. 

25. At this period, the Gauls, a barbarous but very bold 
and warlike people of 
the Celtic race, had 
possessed themselves 
of nearly all western 
Europe, and occupied 
also the north of Italy. 
Proceeding farther 
south, they attacked 
Clu'si-um, an impor- 
tant city of Etruria, the 
inhabitants of which 
sent to Rome for assist- 
ance. (391 B.C.) Em- 
bassadors were accord- 
ingly sent to Clusium 

{klu' She-Um) to de- The Celtic Arms. 

mand of the Gauls the reason of their hostile invasion, and bid 
them quit a territory to which they had no claim. 
Bren'nus, their leader, answered that the *^ title 
of brave men was their swords ;" whereupon a 




Invasion by the 
Gauls. 



battle ensued, in which the Roman deputies, unmindful of 
tlieir neutral character, took part against the Gauls. This 
so enraged Brennus that he immediately left Clusium, and 
with an army of nearly 75,000 men marched toward Rome. 
On the banks of the Al'li-a, a few miles from the city, he met 
and defeated the Roman army; and then marching to the 



198 Ancient History. 



city itself, entered it without opposition, all the inhabitants 
having fled, except eighty aged senators, who awaited the 
enemy in the Forum, in their robes of state and seated in 
their ivory chairs. These venerable men were quickly mas- 
sacred, and the city pillaged and burnt (390 B.C.).* 

26. The citadel, however, being built on a steep and lofty 
cliff, held out for seven months; and the Gauls besieging it 
were reduced in numbers by a pestilence which broke out 
among them. It is said that at one time they were on the 
point of taking the citadel; for having discovered a narrow 
path up the cliff, they had nearly reached the summit during 
the darkness of night, all the guards being asleep; but at that 
instant the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno com- 
menced a loud cackling, which awoke the garrison; and the 
Roman commander, Mar'cus Man'li-us, springing up, rushed 
to the edge of the rock and hurled the Gauls headlong down. 

27. In the mean while, Camillus had been called from 
banishment and made dictator. He arrived, as the story 
goes, with an army just as the Romans were about to deliver 
to the Gauls 1000 pounds of gold which they had agreed to 
pay as a ransom. Exclaiming that *'Rome should be ran- 
somed only with steel,'' he ordered the gold to be carried 
away, and immediately attacking the Gauls, defeated them 

* Many of these details are mythical, but there is probably a basis of truth. The 
following is Arnold's description of the savage massacre of the Roman senators: 
"Then, as men devoted to death, they arrayed themselves in their most solemn 
dress ; they who had held curule offices, in their robes of white with the broad scarlet 
border; they who had won triumphs, in their robes of triumph, overlaid with 
embroidery of many colors and with palm-branches of gold, and took their seats, 
each on his ivory chair of magistracy, in the gateway of his house. When the 
Gauls saw these aged men in this array of majesty, sitting motionless amidst the 
confusion of the sack of the city, they at first looked upon them as more than 
human, and one of the soldiers drew near to M. Papirius, and began to stroke 
reverently his ivory-white beard. Papirius, who was a minister of the gods, could 
not endure the touch of profane barbarian hands, and struck the Gaul over the 
head with his ivory scepter. Instantly the spell of reverence was broken, and rage 
and the thirst of blood succeeded to it. The Gaul cut down the old Papirius with 
his sword ; his comrades were kindled at the sight, and all the old men, according 
to their vow, were offered up as victims to the powers of death." — History of Rome, 



The Roman Republic. 199 

with great slaughter. Other, and probably more truthful, 
accounts state that the gold was paid, and that the Gauls then 
peaceably retired; and it is even said that, more than four 
centuries afterward, some of this very gold was recovered 
from the Gauls of that later period. It is, however, certain 
that the city was left in ruins; and the public records having 
been destroyed, no materials for an authentic history of the 
events preceding this period could afterward be obtained. 

28. After the departure of the invaders, the city was in a 
sad condition, and the peoj^le were almost in desi)air. They 
had lost their houses, their cattle, and their crops, and yet 
were obliged to pay taxes in order to rejoair the city walls, and 
to carry on the wars which the neighboring states 
waged against them. They were also very much 
oppressed by the merciless laws against debtors. In this 
crisis, Marcus Manlius, the brave defender of the citadel, dis- 
tinguished himself by his efforts and sacrifices to relieve the 
people's wants. Having by this means acquired very great 
popularity, he excited the suspicions of the patricians, and 
was accused of attempting to make himself king; of which 
offense being unjustly pronounced guilty, he was thrown 
down the Tarpeian {tar-pe'an) Eock, the very place from 
which he had repelled his country's enemies (383 B.C.).* 

29. For a considerable time the destitution and suffering 
of the people continued, while the wealthy classes selfishly 
held on to their unjust powers and privileges. 
At length a scheme of legislation was j^resented 



Marcus Manlius. 



Licinian laws. 



by 0. Li-cin'i-us Sto'lo and L. Sextius, two plebeians of high 
rank and great ability (366 B.C.). This measure, known as 
the Licinian Laws, comprehended three provisions: (1) That 

* " M. Manlius, less pure and disinterested than his prototype, Spurius Cassius, 
made the plebeian wrongs the stalking horse of his own ambition. Partly tempted, 
partly goaded into crime, he is entitled to our pity, even though we condemn him. 
His intentions were probably at first honest, and the means that he designed to 
use legal ; but the opposition which he encountered drove him to desperate 
measures, and he became in the end a dangerous conspirator." — Raiolinson. 



200 Ancient History. 

the interest already paid on borrowed money should be de- 
ducted from the principal, and the balance made payable in 
three yearly installments; (2) That no person should hold 
more than 600 jugera (about 380 acres) of the public lands; 
and (3) That thereafter consuls should be elected in the place 
of military tribunes, and that one of the two consuls should 
belong to the plebeian order. 

30. The Licinian laws were adopted, but not without a 
severe struggle that lasted several years, during which the 
aged Oamillus was again made dictator. Lucius 
Sex'tus, one of the proposers of the laws, was 
elected the first plebeian consul; and, at the close 



Oamillus 
dictator. 



of the contest, Oamillus dedicated a temple to Concord. The 
patricians, however, from time to time, endeavored to over- 
ride or evade these laws, but were invariably defeated, being 
compelled in the end to make still further concessions. At 
the close of these long struggles, a perfect equality 
was established in the political powers of the 
orders; for the plebeians were admitted to all the 



Triumph of the 
plebeians. 



offices, including the dictatorship, censorship, and even the 
sacred college of pontiffs and augurs. Domestic tranquillity 
being thus established, Rome was ready to commence her 
wonderful career of conquest (340 B.C.). 

II. Period of Italian Conquests. 

31. During the period to which we have arrived, lasting 
about three fourths of a century (340-264 B.C.), great^wars 
were waged in Italy, the result of which was that 
Rome became mistress of the whole peninsula. 
These wars consist chiefly of the four Samnite 



Conquest of 
Italy. 



wars, the great Latin war, the war with Pyr'rhus, and a war 
with the Gauls. These will all be treated of briefly, avoiding 
details in the account of the military movements, since for 
these, if needed, larger works can be consulted. The first to 
be referred to is the war with the Samnites. 



The Roman Republic, 



201 



First Samnite 
war. 



A war with 



32. The Samnites, a warlike people inhabiting central 
Italy, having made war upon the Oampa'nians, the latter 
called in the aid of the Romans (343 b. c. ), who 
entering Campania defeated the Samnites with 
immense slaughter, and compelled them to make 
peace, after the war had lasted about two years, 
the Latin cities followed, in which the Eomans 
were also victorious, and Latium was annexed to 
the Roman territory (339 B.C.). In the second war with the 
Samnites, the Romans sustained a terrible defeat in a narrow 
valley called the Cau'dine Forks, and were com- 
pelled by the Samnite general to pass under the 
yoke* in acknowledgment of their subjugation 
(321 B.C.). The war was, however, continued until 305 B.C., 



Latin war. 



Other Samnite 
wars. 



when the Samnites, having been repeatedly defeated, were 
compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. Seven 
years afterward, they renewed the war, being aided by the 
Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls; but the allied 
army suffered a great defeat near Sen-ti'num, a 
town in Um'bria (295 B.C.). This famous victory 



War with the 
Gauls. 



gave the Romans the dominion of nearly all Italy, f Close 
upon this event, followed a war with the Etrurians and 
Gauls, whose combined forces were also vanquished with great 
slaughter. 

33. The inhabitants of the Greek colony of Ta-ren'tum 
[see map, page 87] having given offense to the 
Romans, the latter declared war upon them, upon 
which the Tarentines solicited the aid of Pyrrhus, 
king of E-pi'rus, the greatest general of his age. Complying 
with this request, he landed in Italy and gained a great 



War with 
Pyrrhus. 



* The yoke was formed by setting two spears upright, and placing another across 
the top of them. 

t " The third Samnite war is the contest of confederated Italy against the 
terrible enemy whose greatness was now seen to threaten every power in the 
peninsula. Its turning point, which well deserves its place among the ten or 
twelve ' Decisive Battles of the World,' was the battle of Sentinum."— jRaw^msow. 



S02 Ancient History. 



victory over the Eomans, commanded by the Consul Lae-vi'- 
nus (280 B.C.). But it was a dear-bought triumph, for he 
lost many of his best troops and some of his ablest officers, 
and was probably indebted for it more to the confusion occa- 
sioned by the elej^hants which his army contained, and to 
which the Romans were not accustomed, than to the superior 
valor or skill of his soldiers. When, on visiting the battle- 
field the next day, he gazed on the Roman dead, all of whom 
appeared to have fallen in their ranks, and with their faces 
turned toward the enemy, he exclaimed: ^'li I had such 
soldiers as these, how easily could I conquer the world!" 

34. Many of the Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and 
he advanced to a point within eighteen miles from Rome, to 
which he sent an emissary, offering peace; but the Roman 
senate refused to treat for peace until he should withdraw his 
forces from Italy. Another battle was fought the next year, 
in which the Romans were again defeated, but with great loss 
to Pyrrhus. Leaving Italy, he then proceeded to Sicily with 
the design of expelling the Carthaginians from that island, 
but in this he was not successful; and after an absence of two 
years he returned to Tarentum. At Ben-e-ven'- 
tum, a town in Samnium, about 28 miles from 
Cap'u-a, he was met by the Romans under the 



Defeat of 
Pyrrhus. 



Consul Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, and suffered a most disastrous 
defeat (275 B.C.), after which he retired from Italy, with the 
almost total loss of his army.* 

35. After the departure of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines applied 
for aid to the Carthaginians, who sent a fleet for their relief; 
but the Romans obtained possession of Tarentum. The Sam- 
nites, Luca'nians, and other tribes soon afterward submitted, 
thus leaving Rome mistress of all Italy (264 B.C.). Over this 
extensive domain she organized a most effective government. 

* On his return to Greece, he was proclaimed king of Macedonia. Making war 
upon the Spartans, he nearly took their city ; but, in an attack upon Argos, he was 
killed by a tile thrown by a woman from the roof of a house. 



Tlie Roman Republic. 



203 



Some portions, which were called prmfectures — that is, dis- 
tricts governed by prasfects, she ruled by means of magis- 
trates sent from herself. From others, the municipal towns, 
she only exacted military service, leaving to them the control 
of their own local affairs; while in very many she planted 
colonies of Roman citizens, whom she supplied with lands 
from the conquered territory, and placed over the subjugated 
inhabitants. Her rule was, however, mild and generally just, 
and was but little disturbed by commotion or revolt. 

36. In connection with the colonial system of Rome at 
this time, the military roads were an important auxiliary. 

After the conquest of Campania, Ap- 
pius Claudius (Csecus) 
constructed a paved 
road to Capua, called after him the 
Appian Way (312 B.C.). Other roads 
were afterward constructed, which 
intersected every part of Italy, and 
served to bind all the outposts to 
Rome as the great center of the 
whole. The wonderful 
aqueducts, stretching 
over hills and valleys, or forming 
subterranean channels, were com- 
menced about this time. The 




Military roads. 



Aqueducts. 



The Via Appia. 

(Passing through the grotto of 

Posilipo near Naples.) 



re- 



mains of these structures, so exten- 
sive and durable, now present one of the most imposing 
spectacles that the eye of the traveler rests upon among the 
wonders of the ^'^ Eternal City" and its surroundings. 

III. Period of Foreign Conquests (264-133 B.C.). 

37. The period to which we have now arrived, in the 
history of Rome, is especially marked by the splendor of her 
military career, and the rapidity and extent of her foreign 
conquests. Owing to the great increase of her wealth from 



204 Ancient History. 



the couquered states . in Italy, and the large and numerous 
colonies which she was continually sending forth, and haying 
now an established constitution and system of laws, she was 
relieved from those internal troubles by which the develop- 
ment of her power as a nation was checked. Hence, at this 
period, the external relations of Rome became the all-engross- 
ing theme; for the brazen gates of the temple of Janus had 
never been closed but once during this long series of years (in 
235 B.C.). 

38. Across the Mediterranean, on the African shore, was 
the great rival republic, Carthage (see map, p. 205); and it 
n was with her that Rome was now to measure her 
strength in three tremendous contests, known in 



Punic wars. 



history as the Punic Wars. Carthage was of Phoenician origin, 
having been settled by the Tyrians about six centuries before 
this period. She had, at this time, become one 
of the greatest maritime powers in the world. 



Carthage. 



Her ships covered the Mediterranean, distributing the pro- 
ducts of the East to the various ports on its shores. Three 
hundred cities in Africa paid her tribute; and she had made 
extensive conquests in Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily. 

39. Syracuse, however, in Sicily, still retained its inde- 
pendence, after repeated wars with the Carthaginians. This 
city was a colony of the Corinthians, established 
in the eighth century B.C.; and, in the fifth cen- 
tury, became the most populous and powerful 



History 
of Syracuse. 



state in the island, under a virtuous and patriotic sovereign, 
named Ge'lon. During its struggle with Athens, in which 
Nicias was so disastrously defeated, it was under a free gov- 
ernment, but subsequently lost its liberties (405 B.C.), being 
ruled for 38 years by the famous Di-o-nys'i-us, who carried 
on a successful war with the Carthaginians. Ti-mo'le-on, a 
Corinthian of great virtue and talents, restored it to freedom 
(344 B.C.); but under A-gath'o-cles, the despotism was again 
established (317 B.C.). At the time at which we have arrived. 



P ^9 



TlKVJx 




206 



Ancient History. 



it was under the rule of a monarch named Hi'e-ro, during 
whose reign flourished the famous mathematician Archimedes 
{ar-ke-me'deez), 

FIRST PUNIC WAR. 

40. The first Punic war commenced in 264 B.C., and lasted 
23 years. It was brought on in the following manner. 
Agathocles, who waged long wars with Carthage, 
had hired a body of troops from Campania; 
and these, after the death of that despot, seized 
Messana and slaughtered the inhabitants, after which they 
assumed the name of Mam'er-tines, sons of Mars, or warhke 



The 
Mamertines. 




War-ship of Hiero. 

men. These Hiero, king of Syracuse, marched against and 
defeated. Whereupon they invoked the aid of the Romans; 
and, notwithstanding Hiero had but a few years before been 
their friendly ally, and had given them valuable aid, the 
Romans decreed that assistance should be sent to the Mamer- 
tines. But in the mean time, Hiero had formed an alliance 
with Carthage; and thus, through a set of mercenary mur- 
derers and robbers, these two great republics were plunged 



The Roman Republic. 207 

into a series of wars wliicli lasted more than a hundred years. 
The real cause of the war was, however, the rivalship of these 
states. 

41. The Komans, having gained some important victories, 
were soon joined by many of the cities oi Sicily, including 
Syracuse, for Hiero soon deserted the Cartha- 
ginians, and became an ally of Kome. They then 
took Ag-ri-gen'tum, defeating an immense army 



Success of the 
Romans. 



which the Carthaginians had sent to its assistance (262 B.C.). 
Seeing then the necessity of coping with their enemy on the 
sea, they built a fleet, and, under the Consul Du-il'li-us, 
gained two great naval victories. Thus encouraged, they 
sent an armament under Reg'u-lus to attack Car- 
thage itself; but this expedition, although at first 



Regulus. 



successful, was defeated with great loss through the assist- 
ance of Xan-thip'pus, a Spartan general, who had recently 
entered the service of Carthage. He advised the Carthaginians 
to select the level, open country for their battle-field, where 
their elephants and cavalry coidd be fully brought into action. 
The greater part of the Romans were slain or made prisoners, 
Regulus himself being among the latter (255 B.C.). 

42. But the Romans were not to be discouraged by this 
great disaster, and they soon gained several important vic- 
tories, among which the defeat of Ha-mil'car in i 
Sicily by the Consul Me-tel'lus (251 B.C.) was the ^Seat' 

most serious to the Carthaginians, and induced I 

them to make overtures for peace. They, accordingly, as 
is related, took Regulus from prison and sent him to Rome, 
exacting from him a promise that, unless he should obtain 
for them favorable terms of peace, he would return to Car- 
thage (250 B.C.). But Regulus listened to the dictates of 
patriotism, instead of consulting his own per- 
sonal safety, and advised his countrymen to con- 
tinue the war, assuring them that Carthage was 



Fate of 
Regulus. 



nearly exhausted. In spite of the entreaties of his family and 



208 Ancient History. 



friends, he kept his word, and returned to Carthage, where, 
it is said, he was put to death with the most dreadful tor- 
tures. After the war had continued some years longer, the 
Carthaginians were compelled again to sue for 
peace, which was granted on condition that they 
should evacuate Sicily, acknowledging the inde- 



Close of the 
war. 



pendence of Syracuse, restore the Roman prisoners, and pay 
all the expenses of the war (241 B.C.). Sicily, with the excep- 
tion of Syracuse, then became a Roman proyince. 

43. One important result of this war was to make Rome a 
great naval power; for, though at the beginning the Romans had 
no maritime experience, in the course of it they 
became fully a match for the Carthaginians in 
this kind of warfare. Carthage was still further 



Results of the 
war. 



weakened by the revolt of her mercenary army and African 
allies. But she Avas finally rescued from this trouble by the 
energy and genius of Hamilcar, her great general. Rome, 
however, took advantage of the revolt to seize upon Sardinia, 
which she formed into a Roman province. In 
the organization of Sicily and Sardinia com- 
menced the provincial system, each province 



Provincial 
system. 



paying taxes to the Roman people. Rome also sbowed her 
maritime skill and power in subduing the Il-lyr'i-an pirates, 
then the terror of the surrounding seas. She 
also defeated the Gauls in northern Italy, and 
made a complete conquest of the country between 



Further 
successes. 



the Apennines and the Alps, afterward called Cisalpine GauL 
44. In the mean time, the Carthaginians, driven out of 

Sicily and Sardinia, obtained full compensation for their 
loss by their increase of power in southern Spain, 
under the management of their great leader, 
Hamilcar. They occupied the rich towns, and 



Carthaginians 
in Spain. 



reduced and trained to arms the warlike Celts and Iberians. 
They, moreover, discovered and commenced to work the rich 
silver mines, near which they founded a city called New 



The Roman Republic. 209 

Carthage, designed to be the capital of this new empire. 
Eome, ever watchful and jealous, made an alliance with 
Sa-gun'tum, and extorted a promise from the Carthaginians 
that they would not pass the Ebro. 

45. But Han'ni-bal, the son of Hamilcar, had when a 
youth been made by his father to swear upon the altar eternal 

enmity to the Komans; and, as soon as he assumed i 

the command (220 B.C.), he determined to carry I _"" '_ 

his hostile plans into execution by invading Italy. He first 
marched his forces to the Ebro, and attacked Saguntum, 
which, in spite of the remonstrances of the Roman senate, he 
captured, after a siege of eight months (219 B.C.). This was 
the commencement of the Seco7id Punic War.^ 

SECON^D PUKIC WAR. 

46. Hannibal, having passed the winter at New Carthage, 
in the spring crossed the Pyrenees, with the intention of 
invading Italy; for he anticipated that the war- 
like tribes of the newly conquered territory of 
Cisalpine Gaul would declare in his favor, and 



Invasion of 
Italy. 



Defeat of the 
Romans. 



expected that the Italian states would desert the Roman con- 
federacy. With wonderful daring and dispatch he crossed 
the Alps, and at the river Ti-ci'nus met and defeated the 
Romans under their consul Scip'i-o (218 B.C.). 
A few days afterward, he inflicted a severe defeat 

upon the other consul, Sem-pro'ni-us, near the I 

river Tre'bi-a, a short distance from the scene of the first 
conflict. Another great battle was fought the next year, near 
the lake Tras-i-me'nus, where the Romans were again defeated, 

* After the fall of Saguntum, the Roman senate sent an embassy to Carthage to 
demand satisfaction for this violence done to the allies of Rome ; and, in present- 
ing the subject, the chief of the embassy, gathering up the folds of his toga, 
exclaimed: " Here I carry peace and war. Say, ye men of Carthage, which shall 
it be?'' "Give us v/hat you will," was the reply. "Then give we war," said the 
embassador, spreading out his toga. "We accept it, and will maintain it with the 
spirit in which it is accepted," rejoined the Carthaginians. Thus, according to 
Livy, was this dreadful war declared. 



210 Ancient History. 



their army being almost destroyed (217 B.C.). So alarmed 
did the Eomans become, in consequence, that they immedi- 
ately appointed a dictator, Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus being selected 
for the office. But Hannibal did not march to Rome, as was 
expected, because he waited for the Italians to join his stand- 
ard; but their fidelity to Rome remained unshaken, and not a 
town opened its gates to the invader. 

47. The cautious Fabius, unwilling to risk another engage- 
ment with Hannibal's army, now flushed with victory, adopted 
the tactics of harassing the invaders as much as 
possible, hovering around them, like " a cloud on 



the mountains," thus wearing out their resources by delay. 
The Romans were thus enabled to recover somewhat from 
their disasters; but the next year (216 B.C.), Hannibal, having 
advanced into southern Italy, was opposed by a large army 
under the consuls -^-mil'i-us and Var'ro; and at Oan'nae a 
terrific battle took place, which for the fourth 
time resulted in a complete victory for the Car- 
thaginians (216 B.C.). It is said that more than 



Battle of 
Cannae. 



50,000 Romans fell on the field, and that Hannibal sent to 
Carthage three bushels of gold rings, taken from the fingers 
of the senators and knights who were found among the slain. 
Several of the tribes in the south of Italy revolted from the 
Romans; but the Creek cities and nearly all the Italian sub- 
jects i-emained faithful. Hjmnibal, instead of marching on 
the city, which it is thought he might have captured, went 
into winter quarters at Capua, and waited for reinforcements. 
48. In the mean time, the Romans had sent Publius Cor- 
ne'lius Scipio into Spain to make an attack upon the Cartha- 
ginians there, in order that no additional forces 
might be sent to Hannibal. In a few years Scipio 



Scipio in Spain. 



and his brother succeeded in destroying the Carthaginian 
power in that country, and reduced Spain to a Roman 
province (216-205 B.C.). Hannibal gained no decisive vic- 
tory after that at Canucne. His army, reduced in numbers. 



The Roman JRepublic, 



211 



^^—qrr. 



and impaired in strength and discipline by the pleasures and 
vices of Oapua, was scarcely adequate to protect his Italian 
allies against the Romans, now under the com- i 
mand of Fabius and Mar-cel'lus, the former of MaJceiiuJ^ 

whom, from his cautious policy, was called the I 

Shield of Eome, and the latter, on account of his vigor and 

address, the Sword of Rome. 
Marcellus did important ser- 
vice in Sicily. 

49. Hiero, king of Syra- 
cuse, having died, the people 
of that city estab- 
lished a popular 
government, and 



The territory of Syracuse 

TEAR B. C. 264 




declared against the interests 
of Rome. Marcellus there- 
fore proceeded against the 
place, which he took after a 
siege of two years (212 B.C.). 
This siege is memorable for 
the part taken in the defense 
of the city by Archimedes, 
who exhausted his science and skill in the invention of 
machines to assail the besiegers. In the general massacre 
that followed the entrance of the Romans, the aged philoso- 
plier was slain;* the city was pillaged, and many of its mag- 
nificent works of art were carried to Rome. 



Taking of 
Syracuse. 



* Archimedes was in his study, absorbed in his scientific researches, when the 
Romans entered: nor did he perceive that tlie city was taken till a soldier entered 
his room, and commanded him to follow him into the presence of Marcellus. Ar- 
chimedes requested him to wait till he had finished his problem, upon which the 
soldier drew his sword and killed him. Marcellus, much grieved, ordered his body 
to be honorably buried, and a tomb erected to his memory. His genius for mathe- 
matics and his devotion to his favorite study were very remarkable. He was often 
so engaged in this study that he neglected his meat and drink. The incident of the 
crown is very interesting. It seems that a jeweler had made a crown for Hiero; but 
the king, suspecting that it had been fraudulently alloyed with silver, set Archimedes 



212 Ancient History. 

60. Hannibal, despairing of succor from Carthage, now 
eagerly awaited the arrival of a force under his brother 
Has'dru-bal from Spain, which had been expected 
for some time. At length Hasdrubal succeeded 
in crossing the Alps, and was 2jroceeding on his 



Defeat of 
Hasdrubal, 



route to join Hannibal in Umbria, when he was intercepted by 
a Roman army, at the Metaurus River; and was defeated and 
slain (207 e.g.). Hannibal received notice of this disaster by 
the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused 
to be thrown into his camp. At the sight of this dreadful 
omen, Hannibal exclaimed: '•' I foresee the doom of Carthage!" 
The Romans, under the influence of Scipio, the conqueror of 
Spain, resolved now to '■' carry the war into Africa," and 
Scipio was appointed to the command. Meanwhile, Hannibal 
withdrew to the wild and mountainous districts of Bruttium 
{hru' slie-um) , still nursing the hope that he might receive 
reinforcements from Carthage. 

51. Scipio landed in Africa in 204 3.c. Having defeated 
the Numid'ians in a great battle, and vanquished the Car- 
thaginians with immense slaughter, at U'ti-ca, 
Scipio marched almost to the gates of Carthage; 



Scipio in Africa. 



when the Carthaginian senate, driven to despair, recalled 
Hannibal to the defense of his own country. The call was at 
once obeyed, and landing in Africa, Hannibal drew u]) his 
forces on the plain of Za'ma, a town in Numidia.* Seeing 
that his army was far inferior to that of the Romans, he 
o])tained an interview with Scipio, and proposed a treaty of 

to examine into the affair. Archimedes thought upon the subject a long time in 
vain. But one clay in the bath, perceiving that liis body displaced a certain quan- 
tity of water, it occurred to him that tliere was a definite relation between the 
quantity of water displaced and the weight of the body, and thus the principle of 
specific gravity flashed across his mind. The problem was solved ; and, transported 
with joy, he ran out into the street, crying out Eureka! Eureka! "I have foimd it! 
I have found it!" 

* Zama, sometimes called Zama Regia, lay some distance to the south-west of 
Carthage, and north-west of Hadrumetum. It was a place of considerable size and 
strongly fortified. [See map, page 216.] 



The Uoman Republic. 213 



])eace; but Scipio, true to Eoman polic}^, declined the pro- 

])()Siil. The battle therefore took place, and Hannibal was 

defeated Avith great loss (202 B.C.). 

52. The battle of Zama ended the second Punic war; for 

although the Carthaginians were not utterly exhausted, yet, 
by the prudent counsel of Hannibal, who saw that 
it would be useless to protract the struggle, they 
consented to accept the terms of peace dictated 



Close of the 
war. 



by Scipio, and approved by the Roman Senate. These were 
very severe: Carthage was to evacuate Spain, to give up all 
her prisoners, surrender her fleets, make annual payment of 
200 talents for fifty years, in order to defray the expenses of 
the war, and agree to undertake no future war without the 
consent of Rome. The treaty having been concluded, Scipio 
returned home, and was honored with a more splendid tri- 
umph than any Roman general had previously received. He 
was called thereafter Scipio Af-ri-ca'nus. 

53. Hannibal, for a time, was treated with great respect 
by the Carthaginians, and being placed at the head of the 
government, endeavored to restore the nation to 
its former prosperity and splendor. But the in- 
trigues of the ancient nobility prevailed against 



Fate of 
Hannibal. 



him, and he was compelled to flee in order to save his life 
(196 B.C.). Taking refuge in Syria, at the court of Antiochus 
{an-Wo-kus) the Great, he assisted that monarch in a war 
against the Romans; but the latter prevailing, demanded that 
Hannibal should be given up to them; whereupon he fled to 
Bithynia, and then, being still pursued by the Roman emissa- 
ries, he was at last obliged to put an end to his life to avoid 
falling into their hands (183 B.C.).* 

* " After the loss of his last hope by the destruction of the Syrian host at Magne- 
sia, he wandered from land to land till he found a resting-place at the court of Pru- 
sias of Bithynia. The Senate could not breathe while their great enemy Uved ; and 
Flamininus was sent to demand from Prusias the person of his illustrious guest. The 
king dared not say nay, and gave Hannibal to understand that he must be surren- 
dered to Flamininus; but the great Carthaginian, to avoid falling into the hands of 



1214 Ancient Misiori), 



Conquest of Macedonia and Greece. 

64. At the close of the Second Punic War, the Romans 
commenced an attack on Macedonia; for Philip, the king of 
that country, had not only given aid to the Cartha- 
ginians, but was engaged at this time in schemes 
to conquer Egypt, Pergamus, and Rhodes, which 



Macedonian 
war. 



Rome chose to take under her protection, claiming them as 
her allies. Hence, she entered upon what is called the Mace- 
donian War. The Roman general, Flam-i-ni'nus, on taking 
the command, united all Greece against Philip, by issuing a 
declaration of Grecian independence; and the next year he 
totally defeated Philip in the great battle of Cyn-os-ceph'a-lse- 
(197 B.C.). This decisive victory made Rome the arbitress of 
the world. 

66. The war against Antiochus, of Syria, soon followed 
(192 B.C.); for this great monarch dared to undertake the 
conquest of certain countries — Asia Minor, Thrace, 
etc. — without the consent of the Roman senate. 
Moreover, he afforded an asylum to Hannibal, 



War against 
Antiochus. 



sent a haughty defiance to the Romans, and, on the invitation 
of the ^tolians, landed in Greece. But his Greek allies were 
routed at Thermopylas (191 B.C.), his fleet was scattered; 
and he himself, the next year, suffered an overwhelming 
defeat at Magnesia, in Asia Minor, from the Roman army, 
really directed by the great Scipio, though his brother Lucius 
had the command. The latter was afterward styled Asiati- 
cus, in honor of this great victory. These two illustrious 
men subsequently excited the envy of certain persons at 
Rome, and were accused of embezzling some of the treasures 

his implacable foes, swallowed a dose of poison, which, according to the common 
story, he carried with him constantly, in the hollow of a ring. He was sixty -three 
years of age. Life had long ceased to be valuable to him, because opposition to 
Rome had become hopeless. He died, as he had lived, faithful to the service of that 
avenging deity to whom he had been bound in his boyhood by his father, Hamil- 
car."— LidcZeZZ's History of Rome. 



The Roman Bepuhlic. 215 



captured in Syria. To this base and ungrateful accusation, 
Publius Scipio, the conqueror of Hannibal, dis- 



Exile of 



Scipio. 



dained to plead; but quitting Rome in disgust 

took up his abode in Campania, where he died a few years 

afterward (183 B.C.).* 

56. After the death of Philip, king of Macedonia, Perseus 
[per'suse), his successor, a young and brave prince, made an 
effort to free Macedonia and Greece from the 



, Battle of Pydna 

Roman yoke; but, after a war of three years. 



he was utterly subdued at the battle of Pyd'na (168 B.C.). 
He was carried captive to Rome, where he and his children 
graced the triumph of ^mil'ius Paulus, his conqueror. Thus 
was Macedonia added to the Roman dominions, 144 years 
after the death of Alexander. It has been observed that the 
victory of Pydna really established the dominion of Rome 
over the whole civilized world; for this was the last battle in 
which the forces of a civilized state contended on 
anything like equal terms with those of Rome. A 
few years afterward the conquest of Greece was 



Taking of 
Corinth. 



completed by the taking of Corinth, which was burnt to the 
ground (146 B.C.). 

THIED PUNIC WAR. 

57. In the mean time the Third Punic War broke out, 
caused by the inveterate hatred of the Romans toward the 
Carthaginians; for the latter had been so thor- 
oughly subdued and humbled that no further 



Cause. 



danger could be apprehended on their account. There was, 
however, a strong party at Rome bent on their complete 

* No more striking instance of the proverbial ing'ratitude of republics can be 
found. Scipio directed that his remains should not be conveyed to Rome; but the 
day of his death was a day of general sorrow in the city, and many who refused to 
do justice to this great man while he lived shed tears when he passed away. A 
monument was afterward erected at the place of his death. Scipio had ordered to 
be inscribed on his tomb: " Ungrateful country, you do not possess even my bones!" 
Lucius (Asiaticus) was also persecuted for a time ; but the reaction set in before 
his death, and due honor was paid him for his eminent services. 



216 



Ancient History. 



destruction, at the head of which was Porcius Cato, the 
Censor, who for years was accustomed to end 
every speech which he made with the words, Be- 



Cato. 



len'da est Cartlia'go, Carthage must be destroyed. 

58. A pretext for commencing hostilities was found in the 
efforts made by Carthage to repel the aggressions of Mas-i- 
nis'sa, king of Numidia, whom the Eomans 
claimed as their ally. It was in vain that the 
doomed people endeavored to appease the hostil- 
ity of their enemies. They complied with every demand, 
banishing all who had given offense to the Romans, and even 



Defense of 
Carthage. 




PROVINCE 



surrendering their arms and military stores. But when finally 
told that they must leave Carthage, and permit it to be 
destroyed, they took courage from despair, shut the gates of 
the city, and put to death every Eoman within its walls. 
The most vigorous exertions were then made to supply the 
weapons which the treachery of Rome had wrested from 
them. Men of every rank toiled day and night in the forges, 
and the women even cut off their hair to furnish bow-strings 
for the archers. 



The Roman Bepuhlie. 217 



59. For three years, under their general, Hasdrubal, did 
they keep the Komans at bay ; but at length were obliged 
to yield to the skill and perseverance of Scipio, 
afterward called Africanus the Younger, under 
whose command the llomans scaled the walls of 



Taking 
of Carthage. 



the city, and cut their way to the citadel. After six days of 
continuous slaughter, the miserable inhabitants were subdued; 
and the city having been set on fire, very many perished in 
the flames. By a subsequent order of the Roman Senate, 
every house that was left standing was thrown down, and the 
city completely destroyed, and a curse pronounced against 
any one who should attempt to rebuild it (146 B.C.). Thus 
perished this magnificent city of 700,000 people, after it had 
existed seven centuries. The Carthaginian territory was then 
formed into a province under the name of Africa, and the 
seat of government fixed at Utica.* 

60. Although the Carthaginians had been expelled from 
Spain, the inhabitants were not subdued; and they valiantly 
defended their liberties for a long series of years 
against the Romans. Among the most courageous 



War in Spain. 



and warlike tribes were the Cel-ti-be'ri-ans and Lu-si-ta'- 
nians. \ The latter found, in their noble and patriotic chief 
Vir-i-a'tus, a leader worthy of their bravery, and able to cope 
with the best generals of Rome. During six years he defied 
every effort for his defeat and capture; and the Lusitanians 
were not subdued until the Romans by treachery procured 
his assassination; to such a depth of dishonor had the Roman 
government sunk at that time (139 B.C.). 



* The destruction of this great city was one of the most ruthless acts recorded in 
history, like the destruction of Veil, in 393 b.c. ; of Corinth, which perished the same 
year with Carthage; and Jerusalem, in 70 a.d. Under the Emperor Augustus, Car- 
thage was rebuilt, and became, in the second century of the Christian era, one of 
the finest cities of the Roman Empire. It was again destroyed by the Arabs in the 
seventh century (698 a.d.), and now only a few ruins remain to mark its site. 

i Lusitania corresponded very nearly with modern Portugal; Celtiberia, with 
Aragon, in the north-eastern part of Spain. 



% f . I ^^A Z I 








The Roman Republic. 219 



61. The Numantine war continued several years longer 
in the vicinity of Numantia, a city in the northern part of 
Spain; and it was not until Scipio ^Emilianus* took tlie com- 
mand that it was brought to a successful conclusion. Numan- 
tia suffered, for fifteen months, one of the most dreadful 
sieges recorded in history, the people, in the extremity of 
famine, devouring the bodies of the dead. At last they were 
compelled to surrender; but some set fire to their houses, 
killed their wives and children, and perished in the flames. 
Only a miserable remnant of the inhabitants survived; and 
of these Scipio selected fifty to grace his triumphal pro- 
cession; the rest he sold into slavery, and ordered the city to 
be entirely destroyed (133 B.C.). 

62. These events closed the epoch which we have called 
W\Q period of foreign conquest; for though Rome continued 
to carry on wars and to annex new territories, 
it was during that period that she succeeded in 
making herself the sole great power in the then 



Review 
of the period. 



civilized world. At the beginning of that epoch, her do- 
minions were confined to Italy ; but at its close her sway 
stretched over the whole of southern Euroj^e, from the 
Atlantic to the Euxine, including all the great islands near 
its shores, while her power was felt in Egyj)t and the king- 
doms east of the Mediterranean. Her rapidly acquired 
provinces had led to an additional feature in her polity— the 
provincial or proconsular system, each province being governed 
by a magistrate of great power and dignity, both civil and 
military, either a proconsul, a praetor, or a propraetor, accord- 
ing to its importance or extent. 

63. The effect of this rapid tide of conquest was to pour 
a flood of wealth into the city, leading to many great public 
improvements. New buildings were erected, including two 

* This was Scipio Africanus the Younger. The title of Numantinus was given to 
him after the war, making his full name Publius Cornelius Scipio ^milianus Afri- 
canus Numantinus. 



220 Ancient History. 



new aqueducts; the streets were paved; the city was thor- 
oughly drained by capacious sewers; and addi- 
tional military roads were constructed in different 
parts of Italy. It was about this time that the 



Effects of the 
conquests. 



Change in 
nnanners. 



consul P. Scipio Na-si'ca caused a clep' sy-dra,"^ or water- 
clock, to be set up for public use. After the conquest of 
Greece, the city was filled with Greek scholars, writers, 
teachers, and musicians, many of whom were slaves; and the 
study of Greek literature came into vogue with Greek 
manners, customs, and fashions. Latin literature, also, made 
a commencement at this epoch, during which flourished the 
dramatists Naevius, Ennius, Plautus, and Terence. Some of 
their writings are still extant. 

64. With wealth came luxury and a total departure from 
the simple manners which had characterized the Romans of 
the early days. A large part of the people became 
licentious and effeminate; and the love of pleasure 
and disj)lay, instead of patriotism and virtue, be- 
came the ruling motive. Corruption prevailed among the 
public officers and magistrates; and, to crown all, slavery 
assumed enormous proportions. It is said that of the popu- 
lation of Italy at this time, about twelve millions — more than 
two thirds — were slaves, f Such was the state of things that 
led to the interminable dissensions and terrible civil wars 
which characterize the next period of this history. 

* The clepsydra, in its simplest form, consisted of a transparent vase, filled with 
water, which was permitted to escape by a very small orifice, its height as shown 
by a graduated scale indicating the hour. This instrument was invented, or greatly 
improved, by Ctesibius of Alexandria, about 235 B.C. 

t " A few examples will show the prodigious number of slaves that must have 
been thrown into the market after the Second Punic War. To punish the Bru^- 
tians for the fidelity with which they adhered to the cause of Hannibal, the whole 
nation were made slaves; 150,000 Epirotes were sold by ^Emilius Paulus; 50,000 cap- 
tives were sent home from Carthage. These numbers are accidentally preserved; 
and if, according to this scale, we calculate the hosts of unhappy men sold in 
slavery during the Syrian, Macedonian, Illyrian, Grecian, and Spanish wars, we 
shall be prepared to hear that slaves fit only for unskilled labor were plentiful and 
cheap."— LiddfZrs History of Rome. 



The Roman Republic. 221 



rv. Period of Internal Dissensions and Civil War 
(133-29 B.C.). 

65. The Gracchi. The great conquests Avhich had been 
made served rather to enrich the nobles than to benefit the 
middle and poorer classes of the citizens; and, 
besides, had corrni)ted the government by giving 
undue power to the Senate. The agrarian laws 



Revival of the 
Licinian laws. 



which in earlier times had been passed to protect the people 
against the greed of the aristocracy, were generally unob- 
served; so that the land throughout Italy was in the pos- 
session of a few noble families; while the swarms of slaves 
left no occupation to the citizens except that of war. At this 
time a champion of the people arose, in the person of a young 
noble named Ti-be'ri-us Grac'chus, who being elected tribune, 
and noticing with grief and indignation the oppressions of 
the rich and the sufferings of the poor, determined to make 
an effort to redress these wrongs by reviving the Licinian 
laws [see page 199] (133 B.C.).* 

66. Following the provisions of these laws, Gracchus pro- 
posed that the persons who held public lands to which they 
had no right should vacate them, on receiving pay- 
ment for the buildings which they had erected upon 
them, and that the lands should then be divided 



Measures 
proposed by 
Gracchus. 



according to law. He also proposed that the treasures left to 



* The speeches of Gracchus to the people were very effective, for he was a great 
orator. On one occasion he said: "The wild beasts in your land have their dens, 
but the soldiers of Italy have only water and air. Without houses or property, they, 
with their wives and children, are vagabonds. Your commanders deceive you 
when they bid you fight for your hearths and your gods : you have no hearths ; you 
have no household gods. It is for the insolence and luxury of others that you shed 
your blood. You are called the lords of the world, and you do not possess a square 
foot of soil." 

Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were the sons of that celebrated matron Cornelia 
who, though of illustrious family and possessing extensive accomplishments, was 
only proud of her distinction as the "Mother of the Gracchi." She it was who 
pointed to her sons, on a certain occasion, and remarked, " These are my jewels!" 



222 



Ancient History. 



Rome by Attains, king of Pergamus, should be laid out in 
the purchase of farming implements and cattle for the poor 
occupants of these lands. These propositions raised a great 
storm of indignation among the senators and other members 
of the aristocracy; and, while an election for tribunes was 
going on, in order to prevent the re-election of Gracchus 




Temple op Concord. 

they rushed into the assembly, under the lead of Scipio Nasica; 
and in the tumult Gracchus was slain. Three hundred of his 
friends perished with him, and their bodies were thrown into 
the Tiber. This was the first blood shed in civil strife at 
Rome since the time of the kings (133 B.C.). 

67. The agrarian law, however, stood, and was partly 
carried into execution. This led to other troubles; and, ten 



The Roman Rejpubllc. 223 

years afterward, Cai'us Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, 
especially famed for his oratory, made another 
attempt to vindicate the rights of the lower orders 



Caius Gracchus, 



against the encroachments of the aristocracy and the senate. 
He proposed that the portion of grain which accrued to the 
state froni the provinces should be distributed among the 
people at a low rate, and brought forward several other meas- 
ures in the popular interest. But he, too, fell a victim to the 
violence of his opponents; for, civil war having been declared 
by the senate, Gracchus and 3000 of his adherents were slain, 
by the orders of the consul (121 B.C.). After this massacre, 
there was a large confiscation of property, by means of which 
a temple was erected to Concord. [See page 222.] The 
Gracchi were branded by the aristocracy as seditious dema- 
gogues, but the people honored their memory. * 

68. Jugurthine War. The shocking corruption of the 
aristocratic order, including the senate, was shown in the war 
against Ju-gur'tha, who, having murdered his 
two cousins, sons of Mi-cip'sa, a faithful ally of 



Jugurtha. 



Eome, had usurped the throne of Numidia. These crimes he 
had been enabled to commit, after repeated complaints and 
entreaties made by the unfortunate princes, by bribing the 
members of the Roman senate; and he openly boasted of the 
power of his gold. At last, when the people would endure 
his outrageous wickedness no longer, war was declared against 
him (111 B.C.).; but even then he succeeded in bribing the 
generals sent against him, and thus prevented defeat. 



* "The law of Gracchus cut the patricians with a double edge. Their fortunes 
consisted in land and slaves ; it questioned their titles to the public territories, and 
it tended to force emancipation by making their slaves a burden. A real crisis had 
come, such as hardly occurs to a nation in the progress of many centuries. Men 
are in the habit of proscribing Julius Caesar as the destroyer of the Commonwealth. 
The civil wars, the revolutions of Caesar, the miserable vicissitudes of the Roman 
emperors, the avarice of the nobles and the rabble, the crimes of the forum and 
the palace, all have their germ in the ill success of the reform of Gracchus. "—.B«r^- 
arofi. 



224 Ancient History. 



69. After the corrupt conduct of these generals had been dis- 
covered, the management of the war was intrusted to Me-tel'- 
lus, a man of great energy and military skill. Jugurtha was 
soon defeated, and compelled to flee for protection 
to the neighboring kingdom, Mau-ri-ta'ni-a. At 
this point, one of the greatest characters in Eo- 



Defeat 
of Jugurtha. 



man history steps upon the stage — the famous Caius Ma'ri-us,* 
who had thus far acted as the lieutenant of Metellus in this 
war. Now, notwithstanding his illiteracy and 
mean birth, he was suddenly raised by the people 



to the consulship, and placed in command of the army against 
Jugurtha. He soon brought the war to a close, having de- 
feated and captured the wily and cruel Numidian (106 B.C.), 
whom he brought a captive to Rome. After being led, with 
his children, in triumph by Marius through the streets, Ju- 
gurtha was thrust into a dungeon, in the Mam'er-tine prison, 
and left to die of cold and hunger (104 B.c.).t 

70. Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons. In the mean 
time, hordes of barbarians, from Germany, called the Cim'bri- 
ans and Teutons, invaded Gaul, and threatened Italy. After 
four Roman armies had been successively defeated by them, the 
command was given to Marius, who attacked the 
Teutons near the Rhone River, and gained so de- 
cided a victory over them, that they were almost 
annihilated (103 B.C.). The next year, having been appointed 

* Caius Marius, the son of a poor day-laborer, was born near Arpinum, among 
the Latin hills, about 157 B.C. He served at the siege of Numantia under Scipio, 
who greatly admired his military talents. Indeed, on one occasion, being asked 
where the Romans would be able to find a general to take his place when he was 
gone, he replied, placing his hand upon the shoulder of Marius, "Here, perhaps." 

t Marius set out for Italy, and, with his legions and their captives, entered Rome 
in triumph— a spectacle of which Jugurtha, in chains, and his unfortunate children, 
were the principal figures. When the procession was over, the captive king was 
led to a dungeon, under orders for his immediate execution. As he was about to 
be stripped of his ornaments and robes, the executioner, in haste to pluck the pen- 
dants from his ears, tore away the flesh, and thrust him naked into a dungeon 
below ground. He descended into this place with a smile, saying, ' What a cold 
bath is here ; ' He pined about six days, and expired, "—FergiMsori's Roman Rep^iblic. 



Defeat of the 
Cimbrians. 



The Roman BepicbUc. 225 

consul for tlie fifth time, he marched against the Oimbrians, 
whom he also defeated with immense slaughter, in Cis-al'pine 
Gaul. By these two great victories, the tide of barbarian 
inundation w^as turned back for centuries, and Marius was 
deservedly hailed as^e Savior of his Goiintri/.* 

71. A dreadful war broke out soon afterward (90 B.C.) 
between Rome and the Italian states, called the Social War. 
This was caused by the demand of the states for 
the rights of citizenship, which the senate refused. 



Social war. 



After nearly two years of war, and tlie destruction of about 
300,000 Italians, the franchise was granted to all such as con- 
sented to lay down their arms; and tranquillity was restored. 
72. Mithridatic War. Among the eastern monarchs of 
this time, Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pontus, the sixth of that 
name, had risen to great power by his wonderful 
genius and force of character. His extraordinary 



Mithri dates. 



physical size, strength, and accomplishments were matched 
by his mental endowments and culture; for he was versed in 
all the learning of the East as well as of the Greeks; and, it is 
said, could converse in all the different languages spoken in 
his extensive dominions, f Already he had made many con- 
quests in Asia Minor, which had in some degree brought him 
in collision with the Romans, when he conceived the idea of 
extending his empire toward the Avest, and announced himself 
as the liberator of the Hellenic people from the yoke of Rome. 

* " The human avalanche which for thirteen years had alarmed the nations from 
the Danube to the Ebro, from the Seine to the Po, rested beneath the sod, or toiled 
under the yoke of slavery. The forlorn hope of the German migration had per- 
formed its duty; the homeless people of the Cimbri and their comrades were no 
more. " — Mommsen. 

+ "What really distinguishes Mithridates amidst the multitude of similar sultans 
is his boundless activity. He disappeared one fine morning from his palace, and 
remained unheard of for months; so that he was given over for lost. When he 
returned, he had wandered incognito through all Western Asia, and reconnoitered 
everywhere the country and the people. In like manner he was not only generally 
fluent in speech, but he administered justice to each of the twenty -two nations 
over which he ruled in its own language without needing an interpreter— a trait 
significant of the versatile ruler of the many-tongued EslsV— Mommsen. 



226 Ancient History. 



At Ephesiis he issued an order that all the Italians residing 
in Asia Minor should be put to death; and, as it is stated, 
80,000 were accordingly massacred in a single night (88 B.C.). 
73. Sul'la, afterward so celebrated for his contests with 
Marius, was sent into Greece to manage IJ^e war against him; 
and, after defeating him in several battles, com- 
pelled him to submit to humiliating conditions of 



Sulla. 



peace (84 B.C.). The war was afterward renewed by Mithri- 
dates (74 B.C.), with a large and well-disciplined army, and a 
powerful fleet; but he suffered a terrible defeat from Lucullus, 
his army being almost annihilated. After another defeat 
he took refuge in Armenia, with his son-in-law 
Ti-gra'nes, then one of the most powerful mon- 
archs in the East, who not only received him, but 



Roman 
victories. 



raised an immense army for his defense against the Romans. 
This vast host was defeated at Ti-gran-o-cer'ta [see Map V.] 
by Lucullus, with a force of only 12,000 men (69 B.C.); while, 
it is said, the army of Tigranes exceeded 200,000 men, of 
whom more than 50,000 were cavalry. The next spring (68 
B.C.), Lucullus gained another victory over the enemy in 
Armenia, and probably would have captured the capital, but 
his soldiers, disgusted with his insatiable lust for the spoils of 
war, revolted; and he was, therefore compelled to retreat. 

74. Soon afterward, Mithridates collected a large force, 
and, while the mutiny in the army checked the operations 
of Lucullus, defeated the Romans. Pompey, 
afterward called the Great, then took the com- 



ipey. 



mand ; and in a short time subdued both Tigranes and 
Mithridates. The latter, driven from his throne and country, 
in order to escape death at the hands of his own 
son, who had revolted against him, put an end to 
his life (63 B.C.). The Romans felt as much joy 



Death of 
Mithridates. 



at the news of his death as if they had gained a great victory. 



Tlie Roman Bepublic. 227 



FIRST CIVIL WAR. 

75. The period of this war is especially noted for the 
beginning of those great contests for the supreme power 
which the ambitious leaders waged between each 
other, and which finally brought the Roman 
republic to destruction. When the Mithridatic 



Marius and 
Sulla. 



war broke out, Marius expected to be selected by the senate 
to conduct it, and was greatly offended because the command 
was given to Sulla; for the latter, who had acted as his lieu- 
tenant in the war against Jugurtha, had grown so much into 
favor as to become his rival. Marius, therefore, by means of 
an intrigue, obtained the passage of a decree in the comitia 
of the tribes transferring the command to himself. Sulla 
refused to submit, but at the head of his legions marched to 
Rome, which he entered and occupied; and Marius was com- 
pelled to flee to save his life. Thus, for the first time in the 
history of the city, a Roman army encamped within its walls; 
and an example was set of using the military power against 
the civil, which was afterward so often followed (88 B.C.). 

76. The aged Marius, who had been six times elected consul, 
and, as we have seen, had been hailed as the savior of his country, 
thus became a wretched fugitive, with a price set 
upon his head. At one place he was thrown into 



Exile of Marius 



a dungeon, and a Cimbrian slave was sent to put him to 
death; but, it is said, that, as the assassin approached, the 
eyes of the old hero flashed fire, and he exclaimed: '^ Durst 
thou slay Caius Marius ?" And the sword fell from the 
affrighted barbarian's hand, and he fled, muttering, ^' No, I 
cannot kill Caius Marius." The magistrates then released 
him, and he crossed to Africa, landing at the site of Car- 
thage. There he received a message from the praetor, com- 
manding him to leave. '^Go tell the praBtor," he replied, 
with a sigh, ^'that you have seen Caius Marius, a miserable 
fugitive, sitting amidst the ruins of Carthage." 



928 Ancient History. 



77. But the soothsayers, in his youth, it was said, had 
foretold that he would be seven times declared consul; and 
this prophecy was to be remarkably fulfilled. * After Sulla 
had departed from Kome to prosecute the war against Mithri- 
dates, one of the consuls, Cinna, who belonged to the Marian 
or popular party, obtaining control of a considerable force in 
southern Italy, marched to Rome. On hearing this, Marius 
immediately returned to Italy, and, with such forces as he 
could collect, united with Cinna. The city was 
occupied by the soldiery, and a dreadful massacre 
ensued, lasting five days. Many of the most dis- 



Massacre by 
Marius. 



tinguished citizens were put to death, Marius reveling in the 
slaughter. The next year he and Cinna were declared con- 
suls without an election; but, tormented by a guilty con- 
science and exhausted by intemperance, he survived this last 
triumph only thirteen days, dying in his seventy-first year 
(86 B.C.). 

78. The Marian party still continued to rule, till Sulla, 
returning from Asia, entered Italy with a large army (83 B.C.); 
but the leaders of the Marian party had made great prepara- 
tions to oppose him. A dreadful war of two years ensued, 
during which the Samnites took up arms against Sulla. He 
was, however, triumphant over all his enemies, 
and after gaining several great victories, entered 
Rome its undisputed master. His first act was to 



Masscre by 
Sulla. 



massacre 6000 Samnite prisoners ; and then commenced a 
fearful slaughter of all whom he deemed his enemies. Every 
day he issued a new list of those wlio might be put to death 
by any one; and, it is said, the porch of his house was kept 
full of heads. After this dreadful proscription, in which it is 
estimated 8000 citizens perished, he declared himself Perpetual 

* *'He told his companions that, when he was very young, and lived in the coun- 
try, an eagle's nest fell into his lap, with seven young ones in it. His parents, sur- 
prised at the sight, applied to the diviners, who answered that their son would be 
the most illustrious of men, and that he would seven times attain the highest office 
and authority in the country."— PZwtorc/i. 



The Itoman Repuhlic. 229 

Dictator. Having effected some reforms in the government, 
he resigned, to the surprise of all, the office of dictator, which 
he had filled about two years, and retired to private life 
(79 B.C.). A short time afterward, he died of a loathsome 
disease, occasioned by intemperance and debauchery. His 
memory was honored with a gorgeous funeral, and 
upon a monument erected to him was inscribed the 



Death of Sulla. 



epitaph, composed by himself: ^^I am Sulla the Fortunate, 
who in the course of my life have surpassed both friends and 
enemies — the former by the good, the latter by the evil I have 
done them." 

79. In this war Marius had been opposed by the patricians, 
while the Senate and its partisans had been on the side of 
Sulla. The party of Marius was thus sustained by the people, 
but that of Sulla by the aristocracy. The death of these two 
great chiefs did not end the strife. Ser-to'ri-us, 
one of the most distinguished of the Marian 



Sertorius. 



leaders, had taken refuge in Spain, and there established a 
power which for more than ten years defied all the efforts of 
the Senate. Pom'pey was sent against him; but it was only 
after the assassination of Sertorius that the insurgents could 
be subdued (72 B.C.). 

80. Servile War. In the mean time, Rome was con- 
fronted with a terrific danger. This was a slave insurrection. 
Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian, made captive in war, and 
afterward kept in a training-school for gladiators, 



Spartacus. 



at Capua, broke away from his place of bondage with a 
number of his fellow-prisoners, and fleeing to Mount Vesuvius, 
was joined by a vast number of slaves and outlaws of every 
description. Having collected a force of over 100,000 ftien, 
he moved northward, defeated the regular army in several 
engagements, and threatened Rome itself. At last he was 
met by a large force under Cras'sus, and his army cut to 
pieces, he himself being among the slain (71 B.C.). This was 
the second great slave revolt, one having, about sixty years 



230 Ancient History. 



before, broken out in Sicily, and been reduced only after 
frightful massacres and ravages. These insurrections were 
the natural result of the dreadful slave-system pursued in the 
Eoman conquests. 

81. At this time, Pompey and Crassus were the two lead- 
ing men at Kome. The former, by his conduct during the 
civil war, his good fortune in Spain, and the 
timely assistance he had rendered against Spar- 



Pompey. 



tacus, had contrived to acquire very great popularity.* Sulla 
had given to him, while yet a young man, the title of Magnus 
— the Great. Crassus exerted a powerful influence by means 
of his immense wealth, which he had craftily acquired by 
buying up the estates of the proscribed during the dictator- 
ship of Sulla. Pompey being sent against the pirates of the 
Mediterranean, acted with so mucli energy and address that 
in three months he entirely cleared the seas of those robbers 
{^^ B.C.) — a most important achievement, for the commerce 
of the Mediterranean had been wholly at their mercy, so that 
Italy could no longer export her products nor even obtain 
corn from her provinces. \ 

82. In the mean time, Lucullus had been winning vic- 
tories over Mithridates and his son-in-law Tigranes, king of 

* After the victory of Crassus over the forces of Spartacus, a considerable body 
of the insurgents escaping into Cisalpine Gaul were met by Pompey returning with 
his victorious troops from Spain, and were cut to pieces. Pompey on this occasion 
wrote to the Senate, stating "that Crassus had defeated the enemy in battle, but 
that he had cut up the war by the roots." Subsequently Pompey and Crassus 
" instituted throughout Apulia and Lucania a man -hunt such as there had never 
been before, to crush out the last sparks of the mighty conflagration. Along the 
road from Capua to Rome the six thousand crosses bearing captured slaves testi- 
fied to the re-establishment of order and to the renewed victory of acknowledged 
right m^er its living property that had rebelled." 

t The power of these freebooters extended from the Pillars of Hercules to the 
shores of Cilicia. They formed a great piratical state, and had been recognized as 
a political power, for Mithridates had formed an alliance with them. Everywhere 
they had rock castles where they concealed their wives, their children, and theu- 
plunder, which they called military spoils. They made it their boast that they 
were at war with the world ; and while they expected crucifixion in every Roman 
seaport, they hesitated not to inflict the same merciless punishment on their cap- 
tives, when the latter could not purchase their release. 



The Roman Bepuhlic. S31 

Armenia, but was stopped in his career of success by a mutiny 
of Ins troops. Pompey was, therefore, sent into Asia, with 
the powers of a despot, to bring the war to a close. This he 
accomplislied in less than three years, subduing 
both the revolted kings, and reducing Pontus to 
a Roman province (63 B.C.). He also reduced 



Conquests by 
Pompey, 



Syria, and took Jerusalem, dethroning the reigning king of 
Judea, and making the kingdom tributary to Rome. Having 
regulated all the provinces of the east, with the authority of 
an absolute potentate, he returned triumphantly to Italy 
(61 B.C.). [Seep. 69.] 

83. Conspiracy of Catiline. While Pompey was in Asia, 
the famous conspiracy of Cat'i-line occurred. The late civil 
wars had left many needy and reckless characters 
who had profited by the lawless violence of that 
time, and who longed for its repetition in order that 



Character of 
Catiline. 



they might gain power and riches. This dangerous class found 
a leader in Lucius Catiline, an audacious and unprincipled man, 
possessing great physical strength as v»^ell as mental vigor and 
culture, for he was by birth a patrician. Having held various 
offices in which he became notorious by his reckless extortion 
and other crimes, he aspired to the consulate; and 
being disappointed, formed a plot to murder the 



Plot. 



consuls and seize the government. Failing in this, while 
Cicero, the orator,* was consul, he renewed the scheme; 
designing not only to murder the consul but to burn and 
pillage the city. 

84. Fortunately this dreadful plot became known to Cicero, 
who denounced Catiline and his associates with such scath- 
ing eloquence in the Senate, that he was compelled to flee 

* Cicero, noted for his eloquence and learning, was among the most illustrious 
men of this time. He was bom at Arpinum, 106 B.C., of a plebeian family, and 
enjoyed the instruction of the most eminent lawyers and orators of the day. He 
also studied Greek philosophy under the best teachers in Rome, and afterward in 
Athens itself. Previous to attaining the consulship, he had filled nearly every 
inferior office, and had greatly distinguished himself as an orator. 



232 Ancient History. 



fi*om Eome. His confederates, who had been left in the city 
to consummate the wicked sclieme, were betrayed by some 
Gauls whom they had endeavored to gain over to their service, 
and being immediately apprehended were put to 
death, through the courage and promptitude of 
Cicero. Catiline, at the head of a numerous 



Defeat of the 
conspirators. 



force, which he had succeeded in collecting, attempted to reach 

Gaul, but being overtaken in Etruria, was defeated and slain 

(62 B.C.). 

85. A few months after this, Pompey returned from the 

Mithridatic war laden with the spoils of the East. His 
triumph of two days was the most splendid that 
Rome had ever seen; for he had conquered fifteen 
nations, and more than three hundred princes 



Triumph of 
Pompey. 



walked before his triumphal car. Yet the Senate, under the 
lead of Cato, refused to ratify his acts; and, irritated by this, 
he joined the popular party. The most prominent leader of 
that party at this time was Julius Caesar,* then 
just rising into notice and power. This man, who 



Julius Caesar. 



afterward became the greatest character in Roman history, 
had already gitined distinction in Spain; and in Rome had 
won over the people by his lavish and princely munificence. 
Seven years before, when holding the office of an inferior 
magistrate, he had dared to restore the trophies of Marius, 

* Caius Julius Caesar was born in 100 b.c, and was a descendant of an old 
patrician family. His aunt married Marius; and, at the age of seventeen, he 
married the daughter of Cinna, the distinguished Marian partisan. During the 
time of Sulla's proscription, Caesar's name was put on the list of those to be slain; 
but some of the nobles interceded in his favor. "I grant your request," said the 
dictator; " but you will find many a Marius in that young man." Once, while on 
his way to Rhodes, the pirates captured him, and demanded twenty talents for 
his ransom. " I will pay you fifty," he replied, "but as soon as I am free I will 
have you all crucified." When released, he collected a force, pursued the rob- 
bers, and kept his word. Thus had he already shown the irresistible energy of his 
character. In the eulogy which he pronounced on his aunt Julia, he said: "My 
aunt derived her descent by her mother from a race of kings, and by her father 
from the immortal gods. In our family is the sacred majesty of kings, who are 
masters of the world, and the divine majesty of gods, who are the masters of 
kings." This was in 72 b.c. 



The Roman Republic. 233 

thus delighting the old veterans, who stood gazing upon the 
statue of their beloved leader with tears in their eyes. 

First Triumvirate. 

86. With the greatest adroitness, Caesar reconciled the 
differences existing between Pompey and the wealthy Crassus, 
and succeeded in forming with them an alliance 
by the terms of which the three were to support 
each other's plans and interests (60 B.C.). To 



Caesar, 

Pompey, and 

Crassus. 



cement the union of Pompey more strongly with himself, he 
gave to him his only daughter Julia in marriage. This secret 
cabal is known in history as the First Triumvirate [association 
of three men]. By the support of his two powerful con- 
federates, Caesar obtained the consulship; and at its close the 
Senate passed a decree by which he was assigned the proconsul- 
ship of Gaul, with the command of an army to subdue the 
barbarians, some of whom had commenced hostile movements, 
threatening the Eoman province. 

87. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul lasted about eight years; 
and, in that period, he not only succeeded in subjugating all 
the warlike races of that country, but, crossing 
the Rhine, gained great victories over the bold 
and hardy Germans. He also passed into Britain, 



Conquest of 
Gaul. 



and defeated the fierce and warlike inhabitants, who strove 
with the greatest intrepidity to repel the invaders from their 
island (55 B.C.). By 50 B.C., his province was completely 
subdued; and it is computed that in these eight years of war, 
nearly a million of Gauls and Germans were sacrificed, Caesar 
never showing the least mercy to the barbarians, while toward 
his fellow-citizens he invariably manifested remarkable mild- 
ness and humanity. He captured more than 800 cities, and 
defeated 300 tribes. 

88. In the mean time, Crassus had obtained the pro- 
consular government of Syria, and had undertaken an ex- 



S34 Ancient History-. 



pedition against the Par'tliians, an eastern race who, first 
appearing near the Caspian Sea, had at this time conquered 
the vast region extending from the Euphrates to 
the Indus. In this expedition Crassus was de- 
feated and slain (53 B.C.).* This disaster ex- 



Defeat of 

Crassus. 



posed the Roman provinces in the east to the attacks of the 
Parthians; but Cassius (kash'e-us), the lieutenant of Crassus, 
prosecuted the war two years longer, and gaining a decided 
victory over the Parthians, checked their further advance 
westward. 

The Great Civil 3Var. 

89. Pompey, although made proconsul of Spain, remained 
in Rome, of which, after the death of the violent and unprin- 
cipled demagogue Clodius, he became the un- 
limited master. One of the members of the 
triumvirate having been removed by death, and 



Pompey's 
measures. 



Pompey having become intensely jealous of Caesar, the trium- 
virate was practically dissolved. Pompey, determining to 
supplant Cassar and obtain the dictatorship, went over to the 
party of the Senate which he had hitherto opposed, and ob- 
tained in succession two decrees: first, that Caesar should 
forthwith disband his army; and second, as he had not obeyed, 
that he should be proclaimed an outlaAv, while Pompey himself 
all the while retained his army in Spain, as well 
as other forces in Italy, in order to enforce his 
ambitious designs. Caesar, seeing that he could 



Crossing of the 
Rubicon. 



only oppose violence by violence, at once broke up his camp, 
and crossing the river Ru'bi-con, the boundary of his prov- 
ince, entered Italy, with a small army, afterward reinforced 

- 

* Crassus, after his defeat, was treacherously induced to meet the Parthian 
chieftain to arrange terms of capitulation; and was barbarously assassinated. 
The victor sent the head and hand of Crassus to the Parthian king, who, it is 
related, caused molten gold to be poured into its mouth, in mockery of the 
Roman's avarice. The wealth of Crassus was enormous, amounting at his death 
to about $10,000,000. 



The Roman Repuhlic. 



235 



by detachments from Gaul. Thus was commenced the Second 

Civil War. 

90. Pompey, with what forces he had, and accompanied 

by many of the senators and others, fled to Brundi'sium, from 

which port, having collected a 
large fleet, he sailed 
toEpirus. Caesar soon 
overran Italy ; and 




Defeat and 
death of 
Pompey. 



then proceeded to Spain, where, 
with consummate ability, he speed- 
ily compelled Pompey's generals 
to surrender, and annexed most 
of their forces to his own. Re- 
turning, he then crossed to Epirus 
to give battle to Pompey. No 
general engagement, however, 
took place till the next year; when, 
on the plains of Phar-sa'li-a,* the 
Pompey the Great. battle was joined, and Caesar, al- 

though with forces far inferior in number, gained a decisive 
victory (48 B.C.). This battle, according to Caesar's own 
statement, cost him only two hundred soldiers; while on 
Pompey's side there fell about fifteen thousand. Pompey 
fled to Egypt, but was treacherously assassinated, by order 
of the Egyptian court, as he was about to step ashore. \ 



* The battle was fought near the city of Pharsalus, in that part of Thessaly 
called Pharsalia. Hence it is sometimes called the battle of Pharsalus. Pompey's 
army was confident of victory, and great preparations had been made for cele- 
brating it. Caesar says in his Commentaries on the Civil War: "On enter- 
ing Pompey's camp, we found tables ready covered, side-boards loaded with plate, 
and tents adorned with branches of myrtle; that of L. Lentulns, with some others, 
was shaded with ivy. Everything gave proofs of the highest luxury, and an assured 
expectation of victory; whence it was easy to see that they little dreamed of the 
issue of that day, since, intent only on voluptuous refinements, they pretended, 
with troops immersed in luxury, to oppose Caesar's army, accustomed to fatigue, 
and inured to the Avant of necessaries." 

t '• Thus fell the illustrious chief whom alone of all their champions the Romans 
bad distinguished by the appellation of the Great, a title which seemed peculiarly 



236 Ancient History. 



91. Caesar, with his characteristic promptitude, pursued 
Pompey to Egypt, and on arriving there was presented with 
the head and ring of his great riyal. He accepted 
the ring, but turned aside with tears from the 
mournful and ghastly spectacle of the gory head, 



Caesar in 

Egypt. 



and ordered Pompey's remains to be burned with due honor. 
He then entered Alexandria. The succession to the throne 
of Egypt was, at that time, in dispute between the young 
King Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cle-o-pa'tra. 



Caesar, influenced by the fascinations of the latter, 
eopara. (igci(je(i i^ ^gr favor, and thus incurred the 



z\ 



hostility of Ptolemy's adherents, who raised a fearful insur- 
rection against him. This, however, in a few months Caesar 
reduced, and confirmed Cleopatra on the throne. During 
this war at Alexandria, Caesar set fire to the Egyptian fleet, 
and the flames having extended to the public library, that im- 
mense collection of more than 100,000 volumes, containing 
copies of all the most valuable works of ancient times, was de- 
stroyed (48 B.C.). 

92. While Caesar was in Egypt, rumors spread that he had 
been slain, and the wildest confusion prevailed for a time 
throughout the empire, but especially in Italy, where his pres- 
ence was greatly needed. But from Egypt he pro- 
ceeded against Pharna'ces, son of the great Mithri- 
dates, who had risen in rebellion and seized upon 



Other 
victories. 



Armenia and Colchis. Caesar speedily defeated him at Zie'la, 
in Pontus, and announced his victory to the Eoman Senate in 
three words — Vent, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). In 
two months all Asia was restored to tranquillity, and Caesar 
then returned to Rome, to assume the office of dictator. 
Proceeding next to Africa, he gained a great victory at Thap'- 



appropriate to one whose rapid conquests in Asia could only be paralleled by those 
of the Macedonian Alexander. His fate continued to point a moral to the latest 
period of the Empire, and its consummation deserved to be regarded as the most 
tragic incident in Jlomaii history."— ilferwate's History of the Eomam, 



The Roman Republic. 237 

sus over the forces of Scipio, who, assisted by Ju'ba, king of 
Mauritania, still adhered to the party of the aristocracy and 
the Senate. Cato, called the Stoic, on account of his stern 
virtue, seeing that all was lost, and that the Roman republic 
was now at an end, committed suicide at Utica (46 B.C.).* 

93. Caesar, having formed Numidia into a Roman province, 
returned to Rome, where he celebrated with extraordinary 
magnificence four triumphs — over Gaul, Egypt, 
Pontus, and Africa. The Romans had never before 
seen so magnificent a j^rocession. A great Gallic 



Caesar's 
triumph. 



chief, the son of Juba, of Mauritania, and Arsinoe, Cleopatra's 
sister, walked before his car. C^sar lavished immense sums of 
money on the people, and also gave feasts and splendid shows, f 
A general amnesty was then declared, and the soldiers were re- 
warded with liberal donations. But before he could settle affairs 
at Rome, he was called to Spain, where the two sons of Pompey 
had raised an army against him. These he defeated in the 
severe battle of Munda, which closed the war. Having thus 
become master of Rome, he determined to lay aside the sword 
and cultivate the arts of peace. He instituted many im- 
portant reforms in the laws and government, rectified the 
calendar, and formed plans for many great and useful works, 
among which were the building of a new senate-house, a 
grand theater, and a public library. He encouraged agricul- 
ture, tried to revive the Licinian laws, and caused laws to be 
enacted regulating bankruptcy, usury, and luxury.]; 

* " The constitutional strug^gle was at an end; and that it was so was proclaimed 
by Marcus Cato when he fell on his sword at Utica."— Mo??; msen. 

t These were the great shows of the amphitheater, consisting of those cruel 
gladiatorial exhibitions, mixed with the combats of wild beasts, in which the 
Roman people delighted. On this occasion, the grand vela'rium, or awning of a 
thousand colors, made of the richest silk, the product of eastern looms, protected 
the spectators from the sun. Thus were the people amused and quieted while they 
were being robbed of their liberty; but, at the same time, they were enjoying the 
spoils of enslaved and plundered nations, the victims of Roman ambition, rapine, 
and avarice. 

X " Caesar was monarch, but he never played the king. Even when absolute 
lord of Rome, he retained the deportment of the part^ leader. Perfectly pliant 



238 



Ancient History. 



94. While engaged in these reforms, a stop was suddenly 
put to his magnificent career. Notwithstanding the modera- 
tion with which he acted, his generosity to his 
enemies, and the consideration and kindness with 
which he treated all parties, there was an under- 



Death of 
Caesar. 



current of dissatisfaction and hostility; for he was, in every- 
thing but the name, a king; and 
it was said that he designed to 
assume even the royal title and 
crown. A conspiracy was, there- 
fore, formed against him by a 
large body of the nobles, promi- 
nent among whom were Brutus 
and Cassius, the former his most 
trusted friend. At a meeting of 
the Senate held on the 15th of 
March (the Ides of March), he 
was attacked by the conspirators, 
and fell pierced with twenty-three 
wounds (44 B.C.). He had de- 
fended himself for a time, after 
the assassins commenced to assail him; but, when he saw 
Brutus among them, he exclaimed, "And thou, too, Brutus!" 
and yielded to his fate, falling at the base of Pompey's statue.* 
95. The conspirators excused their crime on the plea that 
they were freeing Rome from a dangerous tyrant; 
but they were, doubtless, actuated rather by envy 
than by patriotism, with the exception of Brutus, 




Julius C^sar. 
(From a Roman coin.) 



The 

conspirators. 



who sacrificed friendship to the love of his country. Besides, 



and smooth, easy and charming in conversation, complaisant toward every one 
it seemed as if he wished to be nothing but the first among his peers. "—Mommscn, 
* "The assassins stabbed him through and through, for they had pledged them- 
selves, one and all, to bathe their daggers in his blood. Brutus himself received a 
wound in their eagerness and trepidation. The victim reeled a few paces, propped 
by the blows he received on every side, till he fell dead at the foot of Pompey's 
statue. ' '— ikfenf a^e. 



Tlie Roman Republic . 239 

most of the leaders in tlie conspiracy were guilty of base in- 
gratitude; for they had been freely pardoned their former 
opposition to Ca?s;ir, and placed in offices of power and emolu- 
ment. Cassius, indeed, had been one of the most active of 
Pompey's adherents. 

96. Caesar was probably the greatest man that Rome ever 
produced. He was not only an able general and a consum- 
mate statesman and politician, but a splendid 
orator, a fine scholar, and an elegant writer. His 
history of the Gallic campaigns, styled the '' Com- 



Character of 
Caesar. 



mentaries," is a complete model for that kind of composition. 
His knowledge of human nature seems to have been almost 
perfect, for he swayed the minds of all wlio came within his 
influence, to an extent rarely . equaled and never surpassed. 
The activity of his intellect was marvelous. Pliny says, " He 
could be writing and reading, dictating and listening all at 
the same time. He was wont to, occupy four amanuenses at 
once, and had been known to employ as many as seven." He 
is described as "pale in complexion, of a tall and spare figure, 
with dark piercing eyes and an aquiline nose, with scanty hair 
and without a beard." He may be truly said to have com- 
pleted the destruction of the liberties of his country; for the 
battles of Pharsalia, Thapsus, and Munda established the 
Roman Empire, and Julius Caesar virtually became its first 
emperor, as he is reckoned the first of the "Twelve Caesars." 
97. After the murder of Caesar, the conspirators fled to the 
capitol, where they remained until they entered into an agree- 
ment with Mark An'tony, the consul, and a par- 
ticular friend of Caesar, that all his laws should 
remain in force, that his will should be carried 
into effect, and that his body should be honored with a public 
funeral. Accordingly, the body was carried into the forum; 
and Mark Antony pronounced over it a funeral oration, in 
the course of which he exposed the bleeding wounds to the 
people, and so worked upon their sympathies, that they arose 



Antony s 
oration. 



240 



Ancient History. 



against the cons23irators and compelled tliem to flee from the 

city. 

98. Antony, having thus become master of Rome, produced 

Caesar's will, and other papers which he represented as contain- 
ing his acts and wishes. These he made such use of 
as best served his purpose, to excite popular feeling 
in favor of Caesar's party. Thus he excited the op- 



Antony master 
of Rome. 



position of the senatorial party, led by Cicero, who was heard to 
exclaim: ^'The tyrant is dead, but 
the tyranny still lives." Another 
actor, however, now appeared on the 
stage, and one destined to play a great 

part. This was Caius 

Octavius, then a young 

man, the nephew and 



Octavius in 
Rome. 



adopted son of the great Julius, who 
had been appointed heir in his last 
testament. He now (May) appeared 
in Rome, and demanded the property 
left to him by his adopted father 
(44 B.C.). 

99. Octavius did everything he 
could to win over the people, giving 
them public shows, and even borrow- 
ing money in order to pay Caesar's 

legacies. He cultivated the esteem and confidence 
of Cicero, and conciliated the Senate, showing 
the greatest appearance of hostility to the am- 
bitious schemes of Antony. The latter was declared a public 
enemy by the Senate, and was boldly attacked by Cicero, who 
pronounced against him a series of magnificent 
orations, which have been styled, in imitation of 




Mark Antony. 



His artful 
policy. 



Cicero. 



those of Demosthenes, the PMUppics. Cicero was sanguine 
that the republic could be re-established, and he was unre- 
mitting m his efforts to effect this result; for, though fond of 



I 



The Roman Republic. 



241 



Antony and 
Lepidus. 



Octavius 
consul. 



praise and distinction, he was at heart a true patriot. Cir- 
cumstances were, however, working against him, and neutral- 
izing all his exertions. 

100. While these things were in })rogress in Rome, Antony 
was in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was defeated by the two con- 
suls; but both of them being slain, Octavius took 
the command, while Antony formed a union with 
Lep'i-dus, a general of great experience and influ- 
ence, then stationed in Transalpine Gaul. In the mean time, 
the aristocratic pai-ty in the Senate withdrew the 
command from Octavius, and refused him the 
consulate ; whereupon he approached the city 
with his army, and compelled the Senate to accede to 
wishes. 

Second Triumvirate. 

101. Soon afterward Octavius entered into a negotiation with 
Antony and Lepidus, and arranged for an interview, the 
result of which was the 
formation of the Second 
Triumvirate, tlie agree- 
ment being tliat the three were to 
kee^) possession of the supreme con- 
trol of tlie government for five years, 



his 




Ternns of the 
agreement. 



ClCHRO. 



assigning the provinces, and appoint- 
ing the magistrates as they pleased 
(43 B.C.). A dreadful proscription 
and massacre followed the formation 
of this league, each of the triumvirs 
inserting in the list all 
whom he deemed hostile 



and wished to be put to death. Not fewer than three hundred 
senators and two thousand knights were among the pro- 
scribed; and one of the victims sacrificed to the hatred of 
Antony was Cicero, who was assassinated by the emissaries of 
the triumvir, as he was endeavoring to escape. 



242 > Ancient History. 



102. Having taken vengeance upon their enemies in Italy, 
the triumvirs turned their attention to Brutus and Cassius, 
who, with the design of restoring the liberties of 
their country, had succeeded in making them- 
selves masters of all the eastern part of the 



Defeat of 

Brutus and 

Cassius. 



empire. Antony and Octavius crossed to Macedonia and 
engaged the republican forces at Philip'pi, where Cassius and 
Brutus were successively defeated, each slaying himself at the 
close of the battle (42 B.C.).* These victories left the Trium- 
virate in absolute control of the empire. At the expiration 
of the five years, the triumvirate was renewed; but soon after- 
ward Lepidus attempted to gain the joower for himself, and 
was deposed (36 B.C.). 

103. Antony being visited by Cleopatra in Asia, returned 
with her to Egyi)t, and surrendered himself to the wiles of that 
artful beauty, f At last, after neglecting his duty for years. 



* " As long as there seemed a chance that the godlike stroke would be justified 
by success, Brutus claimed the glory of maintaining a righteous cause; but when 
all hope fled, he could take leave of philosophy and life together, and exclaim, 'I 
once dreamed that virtue is a thing; I find her only a name, and the meie slave of 
fortune.' He had blamed Cato for flying from misery by self-murder; but he 
learnt to justify the same desperate act when he contemplated committing it him- 
self.'"— Meru'a^e. Plutarch says that, sitting in his tent, one evening before the 
battle, he saw a strange figure enter, and stand by his side. " Who art thou '?" he 
exclaimed. " I am thy evil genius," replied the figure; "thou shalt see me again at 
Philippi." 

t "When Antony first set out on his expedition against the Parthians, he sent 
orders to Cleopatra to meet him in Cilicia, that she might answer some accusations 
which had been laid against her of assisting Cassius in the war. Though she had 
received many pressing letters of invitation from Antony and his friends, she held 
him in such contempt that she by no means took the most expeditious method of 
traveling. She sailed along the river Cydnus in a most magnificent galley. The 
stern was covered with gold, the sails were of purple, and the oars were silver. 
These, in their motion, kept time to the music of flutes, and pipes, and harps. The 
queen, in the dress and character of Venus, laj' under a canopy embroidered with 
gold, of the most exquisite workmanship; while boys, like painted cupids, stood 
fanning her on each side of the sofa. Her maids were of the most distinguished 
beauty, and, habited like the Nereids and the Graces, assisted in the steerage and 
conduct of the vessel. The fragrance of burning incense was diffused along the 
shores, which were covered with multitudes of people. Some followed the proces- 
sion ; and such numbers went down from the city to see it, that Antony was at last 
left alone on the tribunal. A rumor was soon spread that Venus was come to feast 



The Uonian Republic. S48 



he gave great offense to Octavius by divorcing his sister Octa- 
via, in order to marry the Egyptian qneen, and dis- 
pleased tiie Roman peoi)le by his conduct in Egypt. 
This brought on a war, which Octavius directed 



Antony and 
Cleopatra. 



the Senate to declare against Cleopatra. The war thus caused 
was ended by the naval battle of Actium [ah' t^he-um) , Antony 
and Cleopatra being totally defeated (31 B.C.). 
Fleeing to Egypt, Antony stabbed himself, and 
Cleopatra put an end to her life (it is said, by 



Battle of 
Actiunn. 



means of a venomous asp), in order to prevent being com- 
pelled to grace the triumph of Octavius.* Her death ter- 
minated the sovereignty of the Ptolemies, which had existed 
about three centuries (323-31 B.C.). 

104. Egypt having been made a Roman province, and 
pluudered of its immense treasures in order to supply Oc- 
tavius with funds to reward his soldiers, he re- 
turned to Rome, where he was formally invested 
by the Senate with absolute autliority, receiving 



Octavius 

master of the 

empire. 



the title of Augustus (29 B.C.). The date of this event is 
properly chosen as the era of the commencement of the 
Roman Empire. Subsequently, the government was merely 
a military despotism, under which the Romans were hopeless 
of relief; they, therefore, made no effort to restore the repub- 
lican constitution. Augustus celebrated the restoration of 
peace by closing the gates of the temple of Janus, for the third 
time in the history of Rome. \ 

with Bacchus, for the benefit of Asia. Antony sent to invite her to supper; but she 
thought it his duty to wait upon her, and, to show liis poHteness on her arrival, he 
compHed. "— PZuto7-c/i. 

* " When the figure of Cleopatra was afterward carried in the triumph of 
Octavius, she was represented reclining on a couch with the asp clinging to either 
arm, and a mortal sleep stealing slowly through every limb."— MerivaZe. 

t " Octavius, in a little time, when he had allured to his interest the soldiery by 
a profusion of largesses, the people by distributions of corn, and the minds of men 
in general by the sweets of peace, snowed more aspiring views. By degrees, and 
almost imperceptibly, he drew into his own hands the authority of the Senate, the 
ftmctions of the magistrates, and the administration of the laws. To these en- 
croachments no opposition was made."— racrtws. 



M4 



Ancient History. 



Review Outlitte. 



Chronology. 



Roman Kingdom. 
753 B.C. 



509 B.C. 

Roman Republic. 

509-29 B.C. 

FIRST PERIOD 

509-840 B.C. 



494 B.C. 

493 B.C. 
486 B.C. 
471 B.C. 

445 B.c 

366 B.C. 

451 B.C. 

390 B.C. 

SECOND PERIOD. 

340-264 B.C. 

343-295 B.C. 

339 B.C. 

280 B.C. 
275 B.C. 



One of the Latin tribes — the Ramuians, or Romans 
— made a settlement on the Tiber River, which 
by the addition of other Latin cantons soon in- 
creased in influence and numbers. This became 
the famous city of Rome. It was at first under a 
kingly government, which, according to the tra- 
ditionary history, lasted through seven reigns, 
ending with that of Tarquin. 

The struggles between the two orders — the patri- 
cians and the plebeians, or the rich and the poor 
— were the most prominent events in Roman his- 
tory for about a century and a half. The patri- 
cians were obliged to make many concessions to 
the plebeians, of which the principal were the fol- 
lowing: The appointment of the tribunes of the 
people, and the conferring upon them of the mio 
power; the passage of the Icilian law, making 
their persons sacred ; the agrarian law of Spurius 
Cassius; the Publilian law of Volero, which gave 
the election of the tribunes to the people; the 
right of intermarriage between patricians and 
plebeians; and the Licinian laws, which admitted 
plebeians to the consulship, restricted the holding 
of the public lands, and partly relieved the bur- 
dens of debtors. The celebrated code of laws, 
called the Twelve Tables, was framed during this 
period. Rome w^as taken and burned by the Gauls. 

During three fourths of a century succeeding the 
close of the first period, the Romans were en- 
gaged in the conquest of Italy. They waged 
four wars with the Samnites; subdued Latium; 
vanquished the combined forces of the Etrurians 
and Gauls; and, though at first defeated by the 
invader Pyrrhus,' they finally gained a great vic- 
tory over his forces at Beneventum. Soon after 



I 



Remew Outline. 



S45 



264 B.C. 

THIRD rp:RIOD. 

264-133 B.C. 

First Punic War. 

264-241 B.C. 



255 B.C. 
251 B.C. 
241 B.C. 

Second Punic War, 

218-202 B.C. 

218 B.C. 

216 B.C. 

212 B.C. 
207 B.C. 
202 B.C. 



196 B.C. 



168 B.C. 
146 B.C. 
146 B.C. 



133 B.C. 

FOURTH PERIOD. 

133-29 B.C. 



138 B.C. 

121 B.C. 

111-106 B.C. 



all the tribes and nations of Italy submitted to 
the Roman power. 

The 'period of foreign conquests succeeded, lasting 
about 130 years. The Punic wars, which ended 
in the conquest and destruction of Cartilage, ex- 
tended nearly to the end of this period. The 
principal events of the First of these wars were 
the following: 

The defeat of the Roman general Regulus. 

The defeat of the Carthaginian Hamilcar. 

This war ended with the submission of the Car- 
thaginians. 

The chief events of the Second Punic War were the 
following: 

The Romans were defeated by Hannibal at the 
Ticinus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasymenus. 

The great battle of Cannae, a disastrous defeat for 
the Romans. 

The taking of Syracuse by Marcellus. 

The defeat of Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal. 

The defeat of Hannibal by Scipio at Zama, 

Carthage at the close of the war gave up Spain, 
agreed to pay the expenses of the war, and, in 
fact, became tributary to Rome. Hannibal died, 
by his own hand, in exile a few years afterward. 

The conquest of Macedonia soon followed, the last 
king, Perseus, being defeated and taken prisoner 
in the battle of Pydna. 

Greece became a Roman province. 

The third Punic war ended in the taking and total 
destruction of Carthage. The taking of Numan- 
tia brought to a close a long and fierce war with 
the native tribes in Spain. 

The period of internal dissensions followed that of 
foreign conquests. It opened with a renewal of 
the agrarian struggles, in the attempt to revive 
the Licinian laws by Tiberius Gracchus. The 
patricians opposed the measure, and Gracchus 
was slain. His brother Caius shared the same 
fate, a few years afterward. 

The war with Jugurtha occupied several years, and 



ue 



Ancient Hisiory. 



102 B.C. 
88-63 B.C. 

88-79 B.C. 



86 B.C. 
83 B.C. 

81 B.C. 

63 B.C. 



60 B.C. 



58-50 B.C. 
49 B.C. 



48 B.C. 
46 B.C. 



44 B.C. 
43 B.C. 
42 B.C. 



31 B.C. 



29 B.C. 



was followed by the invasions of the Cimbrians 
and Teutons, wiio were repulsed by Marius. 

The Mithridatic war was a long contest carried on 
in the East against the king of Pontus, and was 
terminated by his death. 

The first civil war was brought on by the dissen- 
sions between Marius and Sulla. The former, 
having gained possession of Rome, ordered a 
massacre of his opponents; but died soon after- 
ward. Sulla, in turn triumphing, retaliated with 
slaughter, and made himself perpetual dictator. 
Pompey, after making great conquests in the 
East, returned in triumph to Rome, joined the 
popular party with Caesar, just rising into power, 
and together with Crassus, formed the First Tvium- 
virate. Csesar returned from his province, Gaul, 
whence after eight years of victorious warfare 
against the natives, crossing the Rubicon into Italy, 
returned to Rome in order to check the intrigues of 
Pompey against him. A war ensued between these 
two ambitious generals, which resulted in the de- 
feat of Pompey at Pharsalia. The adherents of 
Pompey under Scipio were defeated at Thapsus, 
and the sons of Pompey were vanquished in 
Spain, after which Caesar found himself the mas- 
ter of Rome. But a conspiracy having been 
formed against him by Brutus and Cassius, he 
was assassinated in the Senate-house. Octavius, 
his adopted son, formed the second triumvirate 
with Mark Antony and Lepidus, and caused their 
opponents in Rome to be put to death. Octavius 
and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, in the 
battle of Philippi. Antony then went to the East, 
where he made the acquaintance of Cleopatra, the 
Egyptian queen, through whose influence he di- 
vorced his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, and in 
other respects displeased the Roman people. The 
war that followed was decided by the battle of Ac- 
tium, in which Antony and Cleopatra were de- 
feated. Egypt became a Roman province ; and Oc- 
tavius, on his return to Rome, was invested with ab- 
solute authority under tlie title of Augustus Ccesar. 



Contemporaneous Events. 



Cent. b.c. 



8th. 



Rome. 



776 
753 
747 
743 
734 
721 
730 



rth. 



672 
640 
625 
624 
618 

594 



I 560 

! 546 

6th. 538 

[ 534 

525 



Foundation of Rome. 



Greece. 



Fu^t Olympiad. 



Other Nations. 



First Messenian War. 
Syracuse founded. 



Second MessenianWar. 



Tullus Hostilius. 
Ancus Martius. 



Draco at Athens. 



Tarquin the Elder. 



5th. 



510 



494 
485 
471 
464 
449 



Tarquin the Proud. 



Tarquins expelled. 



Creation of Tribunes. 

Coriolanus 

Law of Volero 



4th. 



3d. 



I 346 
i 343 



307 

305 

301 



I 221 

i 218 
i 213 
I 212 
I 205 



Decemvirate abolished. 



Romans take Veil. 



Solon at Athens. 
Pisistratus at Athens. 



Hippias expelled from 
Athens. 



Miletus taken by Darius 



Themistocles banished 
Death of Cimon. 



Samnite War begins, 
Battle of Caudine Forks 
Samnites subdued. 



Battle of Coronea. 
.( Accession of Philip of 
( I Macedon. 
. . Sacred War ends. 



Lamian War 



Demetrius Phalereus 
expelled from Athens 



Era of Nabonassar. 



Samaria taken. 
Lydians in Asia Minor. 



Medes take Nineveh. 



Jerusalem taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

Cyrus subdues Croesus. 
Babylon taken by Cyrus 

Pelusium taken by 
Cambyses. 



Accession of Xerxes. 
Death of Xerxes. 



Death of Alexander 
the Great. 



j Battle of Ipsus. 



Pyrrhus invades Italy.. Gauls invade Greece. [Seleucus assassinated. 

End of First Punic War. Aratus.-Agis \ f'pllv^ct ^ ^°"'^'' 

j Sparta taken by Antig- Kingdoms of Parthia 

I onus. 

Second PunicWar begins 

Aratus poisoned. 

Syracuse taken. [ 

Scipio in Spain IPhilopoemen. 



and Bactria founded. 



183 



146 



Carthage taken. 



Death of Philopoemen. Death of Hannibal. 

Rattlp of Pvdna i Revolt of Jews under 

Battle ot I'ydna -j j^^^^ Maccabeus. 

Corinth taken. 



Roman CimlizaUon. S49 



SECTION IV. 

EOMAN CiVILIZATIOK. 

106. In treating of this extensive subject, witliin the nar- 
row limits here permitted, it will not be possible to trace the 
progressive development of Roman civilization 
during the seven centuries that preceded the time 
of Augustus. At first, the Roman character and 



Change in 
Ronnan 
manners. 



mode of life were characterized by extreme austerity and 
simplicity; but, in the later periods, these gave place to refine- 
ment and luxury, in imitation of Greek manners, and under 
the influence of the vast wealth which the spoils of conquered 
nations brought into Rome. 

106. Rome had grown to be the metropolis of a vast 
empire, which contained, when Augustus reached the pin- 
nacle of his power, about one hundred millions of 
people; while the population of the imperial city 
must have numbered, at the time of its greatest 



Growth of 
Rome. 



splendor, at least two millions, representing not only the 
Roman, but the Greek and Oriental civilizations. Its mag- 
nificent aqueducts, baths, amphitheaters, temples, and other 
edifices made it a scene of wonder to the visitor from foreign 
lands, and enabled it to cope in grandeur with the great and 
pompous cities of ancient nations. This was especially true 
of it after the rule of Augustus, who boasted that he ^^ found 
the city brick, and left it marble."* A few of the most 
prominent objects of Rome will be referred to. 

107. The Forum, or place of public meetings, and the 
great market of the city, should first be mentioned. Here 



* "Rome remained, even to the end of the republic, a network of crooked, 
narrow lanes, along which shops and houses of poor and mean appearance were 
constructed. There were not more than two streets in Rome suitable for heavy- 
carriages to pass in, and in the others the litters of the wealthy struggled to force 
their way through the dense crowd."— Lei'sr/ifon's History of Rovie. 



250 



Ancient History. 



was the Senate-House; the temple of Janus, built of bronze, 

1 the gates of which were closed only in time 

The Roman ^f peacc ; thc tcmplcs of Vesta, of Concord, of 

I Saturn, and of Castor and Pollux; the hall of 

records {Tabula' Hum); the prison (career);"^ the courts for 




Temple of Jupiter Capitolinls. 



the administration of justice {basiVim) ; \ the statues of dis- 
tinguished statesmen and warriors, and the spoils of conquered 

* This was the great prison of Rome-the Mamertine-built by Ancus Martius, 
on the lope of the CapLine, and enlarged by Servius TulUus by a subterranean 
dungeon, I feet underground, walled and overarched with masonry. It was u o„e 
of the cold, damp cells of this dungeon that Jugurtha closed his eventful but 

""'fThesTwere covered porticoes in which persons met to transact business and 
in which the courts of law held their sessions. After the recognition of Christianity 
by the state, the basilica became a model for church architecture. The main body 
of the building, called the nave (from its resemblance to the interior of a ship 
navis^ was for the people assembled for business: the aisles (aim, wings), separated 
from'ihe nave by pillars, afforded passage from the crowd; and the end, semi- 
circular in form, was for the pra3tor and those who appeared before his tribunal. 
In the church edifices these became, respectively, the nave, aisles, and choir. The 
first basilica was erected in 184 b.c. 



Roman Cimlization. 



251 



nations; while, looking down upon all, from the Oapitoline 
Hill, was the great temple of Jupiter.* -Various streets sur- 
rounded or intersected portions of this space, in which were 
shops for the sale of goods {taher'7im). 

108. Besides the main forum, there were other public 
squares of a similar character, used for market-places, or places 
of business. There were, also, open spaces of 
larger extent, resembling parks, being set with 
trees and partly covered with grass. These were 
called fields (campi), chief among which was the Campus 



Campus 
Martius. 




Aqueduct op the Pont du Gard, at Nismes. 

Martius, or Field of Mars, in which were held the assemblies 
(comitia) for making laws and appointing magistrates, and 
where the young men had their martial exercises, drilling, 
ridino^, etc. This was also surrounded by many i ~ 

^\ . _ ^ • ^ . "^ •; The Pantheon. 

splendid edifices. Near to this square was erected I 

by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, the magnificent temple 



* The Capitoline Hill, the smallest of the seven hills, was called previously the 
Tarpeian rock. It was very steep and rugged, and formed a natural fortress. On 
its top was built the Capitol, completed by Tarquin the Proud. It was burned dur- 
ing the Sullan civil war, but was afterward restored. 



252 



Ancient History. 



called the Pantheon (temple of all the gods), 

vived the ravages of time and the destructive 

barbarians. 

109. The aqueducts were among the most 

the Roman works. Of these there were seven 
Augustus, affording an abundant 
both for private use and for the 



Aqueducts. 



which has sur- 
violence of the 

magnificent of 

in the time of 

supply of water 

immense public 

uctures of this 



baths. During the empire many minor str 




Racing Chariots. 

kind were erected. By these aqueducts the water was carried 
from a considerable distance, over stone arches, some of which 
were more than one hundred feet high. The remains of these 
still attest their original grandeur; and of the three aqueducts 
which now supply modern Rome with water, two are of an- 
cient construction.* 

110. Besides these, should be mentioned the buildings for 
the games of the circus, consisting of chariot-races, boxing, 

* "Wherever the Roman went he carried with him his art of building. The 
aqueduct which was constructed by Agrippa to supply Nemansus (Nismes), a 
colony of no great note, with water, is a proof of this assertion. The largest 
modern cities can hardly show a work of public utility so magnificent as the 
structure which is known to thousands of modern travelers under the name of the 
Pont du Gard/'—LiddelVs History of Rome. See page 251. 



J 



Roman CwiUzation. 



253 



and gymnastic contests. These games were, as among the 
Greeks, of a religions character, intended as an expression of 
joy for the favor of the gods or to appease their i ^— 

displeasure. Among the exercises were also the 

dreadful gladiatorial combats, introduced in 264 B.C. The 



.<^M. 




The Flavian Amphitheater, or Colosseum. 

largest and oldest circus was the Circus Maximus, capable of 
holding more than 200,000 persons. There were several other 
buildings of this character in the city. 

111. To the circus succeeded, in the time of Julius Caesar, 
the amphitheater, which was better adapted to the exhibition 
of the gladiatorial combats, the seats, rising in 
tiers, being arranged around the central space, or 
arena, on which the contests took place. In the 



Amphitheater. 



_ time of 

Augustus, a stone amphitheater was built in the Campus 



Martins: but the grandest building of this kind was erected 



254 



Ancient History. 



about one hundred years later, by the emperors Vespasian 
and Titus. This was called the Fla'vian Amphitheater (from 
the emperors' family), but subsequently received the title of 
the Oolosse'um, on account of its immense size.* 
It was elliptical in shape, 564 feet long and 467 



The Colosseum. 



feet wide, resting on fourscore arches, and 



to the 




Mausoleum of Augustus (Restored). 

height of 140 feet. It accommodated at least 80,000 specta- 
tors. Its internal and external decorations were of the 
grandest description. 



* "The outside of the edifice was incrusted mth marble, and decorated with 
statues. The slopes of the vast concave which formed the inside were filled and 
surrounded A^ith sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble, likewise covered with 
cushions, and capable of receiving with ease above fourscore thousand spectators. 
Sixty-four vomitories (for by that name the doors were very aptly distinguished) 
poured forth the immense multitude ; and the entrances, passages, and staircases 
were contrived with such exquisite skill that each person, whether of the senato- 
rial, the equestrian, or plebeian order, arrived at his destined place without trouble 
or confusion."— Cri66o?i. 



I 



Roman Civilization. 255 

112. Pompey's Theater was another remarkable building, 
erected by that great general after his return from the east. 
It was built of stone, and was large enough to 
seat 40,000 spectators. There were also spacious 
edifices for the public baths, built of marble, and 



Pompey's 
Theater. 



supplied with every convenience ; and numerous palaces 
(pala'tia), among which the imperial palace of Augustus, 
fronting the Forum, was conspicuous; but several 
others were built by his successors. Many of the 



Mausolea. 



private palaces were very spacious and elegant. On the hills 
around the city were laid out parks and gardens {liorti), 
adorned with handsome buildings and works of art. The 
city was also rich in sepulchral monuments — imperial or 
private mausolea, as well as columns erected in honor of 
illustrious Romans. 

Roman Art. 

113. In the early period of Roman history, art had made 
some progress. Statues were erected to heroes and patriots, 
distinguished by their services to their country, 
and temples were built to the gods; but of these 



Early period. 



works of the olden time nothing now remains but the famous 
bronze group of the wolf suckling the twins, constructed 
about, three centuries B.C., and set up in the 
Capitol. • The Romans seem to have derived their 
art from the Etruscans and Greeks, whose artistic 



Source of 
Roman art. 



styles and designs had very much in common. After the 
conquest of Southern Italy, Rome was brought into imme- 
diate contact with the finest specimens of Greek art. 

114. Utility rather than beauty was the guiding principle 
in Roman art; and the aqueducts, sewers, public 
roads, and other works already referred to are the 
best monuments of their building and engineering 



Guiding 
principle. 



skill. They aimed not to please the taste simply, but to 
accomplish some great public benefit by their vast structures. 



256 



Ancient History. 



Thus, they cut tunnels through the solid rock for the purpose 
of draining off the volcanic lakes;* and, when Julius Osesar 
had reached the height of his power, he formed the design of 
draining the Pontine marshes by constructing a canal, so as 
to improye the healthfulness of the city, and pro- 
jected other great works. In the early times, an 



The arch. 



order of architecture called the Tuscan was mostly used.f 





Temple of Vesta— (In its present condition). 

Roman architecture is particularly distinguished for the use 
made of the arch, supposed to have been invented by the 
Etruscans, and of the vaulted dome.J 



* " The first tunnel of which we hear was that by which the Alban Lake was 
partially let off during the siege of Veii, a work which was suggested by an Etrus- 
can soothsayer. Other works of like kind still remain, though the time of their 
execution is not always known."— LtdcZeZrs History of Rome. 

t This is an order of architecture, the composition of which is attributed to the 
Etruscans. It is a species of simple Doric. No complete sample of it, however, 
has been left to us by the ancients. 

tWith the fifth century began the building of gates, bridges, and aqueducts 
ba.sed mainly on the arch, which is thenceforth inseparably associated with the 



Roman Civilization. 257 

116. In the later period, iifter wealth and luxury had 
invaded Rome, Greek art became a study; and though there 
were no Roman artists of any account, there were 
many connoisseurs and collectors. The dwellings 
of the rich were adorned with the works of Greek 
masters, as were likewise the ^Dublic buildings and temples. 
Music and dancing were especially cultivated; as, 
in the Roman banquets, the singers and instru- 
mental performers, as well as the dancing-girls. 



Use of Greek 
art. 



Music and 
dancing. 



were in great demand. This was also the custom in their 
theatrical entertainments. 

Roman Literature. 

116. Roman literature, for the most part, was only an 
imitation of that of the Greeks. Rome had no literature 
worthy of the name until near the close of the 
republic; and the rage for Greek models con- 



First period. 



stantly repressed all original genius. The first period of 
Roman literature begins with the dramatist Livius 
An-dro-ni'cus, who flourished about 240 B.C. He 
was a native of Magna Grgecia ; and, when his 



Livius 
Andronicus. 



country was conquered by the Romans, he was brought 
a captive to Rome. He wrote comedies and tragedies, in 
which he also took part as an actor. The stirring 
hymn which he composed for the Romans during 



O+her poets. 



the first Punic War was much admired. Ennius, sometimes 
called the "father of Roman song," and Plautus and Terence, 
noted for their comedies, also lived during this period (in the 
second century b.c). 

117. The second j^eriod, sometimes called the golden age, 
of Roman literature, was more prolific of genius. In the early 
part, flourished Varro, celebrated for his learninsr, who wrote 



Roman name. Akin to this was the development of the form oZ the round temple 
with the dome-shaped roof, which was foreign to the Greeks, but was a peculiar 
favorite with the Romans, and was especially applied by them in the case of their 
peculiar non-Grecian worship, particularly that of Vesta, "—il/owwtse??.. 



258 



Ancient History. 



on agriculture, grammar, antiquities, and many other subjects. 
Indeed, it is said, his works filled 500 volumes. 
He died 26 B.C. Lucretius, a noted 



Golden age. 




philosophical poet, who embodied in verse the 
peculiar tenets of Epicurus, was a contemporary 
with Varro. It was, however, during the age 
of Augustus that Latin literature reached its 
height, through the genius of many gifted poets: 

Virgil, the author of the j^nead ; virgil. 
Horace, renowned for his odes, satires, and 
poetical epistles ; Ovid, for many beautiful 
poems ; Livy and Sallust, for their histories ; 
and Catullus, Tibullus, and Pro2)ertius, for their 
lyric poems. Augustus was a great patron of 
letters, as was likewise his friend and minister, 
Horace. Mae-cc'nas. Among the writers of the golden 
age must also be mentioned Cassar, whose Comme^itaries on 
his own campaigns are a model of military history; and Cicero, 
illustrious not only for his orations but for his philosophical 
works, and his essays and letters. 

118. The third period, sometimes called the Silver Age, 
belongs to the time of the empire; but, in continuation of 
this topic, we may here mention the most promi- 
nent writers v^^ho flourished during it, as their 




Silver age. 



works form an essential portion of Roman literature. Tac'i-tus 
and Sue-to'ni-us are especially noted for their histories and 
biographies; Per'seus and Ju've-nal, for their satires; and the 
elder Pliny for his writings on natural history. To these 
must be added Sen'e-ca, the philosopher and moralist, whose 
writings are prized for their purity and elevation. 

Roman Religion. 

119. The religion of the Romans, in its general features, 
resembled that of the Greeks; that is to say, it consisted in 
the worship of a large number of deities; and among these 



I 



Roman Cimlization. 



259 



were many of the gods of Olympus, but with different names. 
This has already been pointed out in the account 
given of the Greek mythology. Some of the 
prominent features of the Koman religion were 



General 
features. 



derived from the Etruscans, who were exceedingly superstitious. 
As the Eomans were very religious, and as they traced the causes 
of all events, including the phenomena of nature, to the action 
of the gods, nothing was undertaken without previously con- 




The Pantheon— (It-, piebeiit cunditiun, lb81) 

suiting their will, by established methods, which constituted 
a part of the Roman political as well as religious system. 

120. There were many modes of divination — by omens, 
prodigies, the Sibylline books,* and the auspices; but the most 

* The Sibylline books were said to have been brought from Cumse. " The story- 
runs that a strange woman came to Tarquin and offered nine books for sale. The 
king refused to buy the books. The sibyl departed and burnt three,- then returned, 
offering the remaining six at the same price. The king again refused. The sibyl 
then burnt three more, and demanded the same price for the remaining three. 
The curiosity of the king was aroused; he bought the books, and the woman 
vanished. The books were kept in a stone chest under the capitol in charge of two 



260 Ancient History. 



important were the auspices, which were certain signs sup- 
posed to be given by the gods in order that their 
will might become known. There were officers, a 



Divination. 



kind of priesthood, appointed for the purj^ose of attending to 
the proper rites to be employed in interpreting 
these signs; these composed the College of Augurs, 
consisting at first of four, afterward increased to 



Coliege of 
Augurs, 



sixteen, and selected from the patrician order. Besides these 
there was a College of Pontiffs, the most sacred 
of all the religious institutions, which supervised 
and regulated the worship of the state, including 



College of 
Pontiffs. 



the times of the religious festivals, which were very numerous; 

and also decided what gods should be adored. 

121. The public meetings could not be convened without 

consulting an augur; nor could the business proceed if he 
pronounced the omens unfavorable. If it light- 
ened or thundered, or there was any other dis- 
turbance in the atmosphere — a storm, darkness, or 



Office of the 
augurs. 



any peculiar appearance of the sky — the assembly was com- 
pelled to disperse. There was, also, a form of divination 
performed by those called Ha-rus'pi-ces, intro- 
duced from Etruria. It was based upon an in- 



Haruspices. 



spection of the entrails of victims offered in sacrifice, by 
which they pretended to ascertain the will of the gods. They 
also professed to be able to appease by certain ceremonies the 
anger of the gods, when it was indicated by some strange 
natural occurrence, as when the lightning struck, when it 
rained stones or blood, or when any other prodigy occurred. 

122. The priests did not form an exclusive class. They 
were elected as likewise were the other magistrates, but for life; 
and sometimes held a civil as well as a priestly office. The 
pontifex maxitnus (high priest) stood first in power; but the 

men, called duoviri sacrorum. They were consulted by order of the senate in 
times of great emergency or public calamity. Through their influence the worship 
of many Grecian deities was introduced.^'— Leighton''s History of Borne. 



Roman Civilization. 



S61 



King of the Sacrifices {rex sacrific' ulus) held the highest rank 
in sanctity of office. The suhordinate priests 
were called flamens (flani'i-nes), who attended 



Priesthood. 



to the worship of particular deities: the Vestal Virgins were 
priestesses of Vesta. It was unlawful for a flamen to ride 
upon a horse, to look upon an army equipped for battle, or 
to take an oath. He could have no knot in any part of his 
clothing; nor was he permitted to be absent from the city a 

single night. Such are a few 
I of the restraints to which 
every priest was subjected. 

123. The Eoman calen- 
dar showed the festival days, 
which afforded the people 
a great deal of 
time for leisure 




Festivals. 



and enjoyment, besides im- 
pressing their minds with 
their religious duties. The 
worship of Jupiter and 
Mars (Qui-ri'nus) was the 
most prominent, but that of 
SxTovETATjRiLiA. Vcsta was the most sacred. * 

The days of full moon were sacred to Jupiter. To Mars 
belonged the new year's day, March 1, which was a great 
warrior festival, celebrated with war-dances, and the conse- 
cration of arms; and besides this there were the Quirina'lirt 
on the 27th of February, sacred to the same deity. The 
corn and wine festival {Cerea'lia), sacred to Ceres, took place 
in June; the Vina'lia, or wine feast, in August; the Saturn- 
a'lia, or festival of Saturn, in December ; the Luperca'lia, 

* " Six chaste virgins, daughters as it were of the household of the Roman people, 
attended to the service of Vesta, and had to maintain the wholesome fire of the 
common hearth always blazing as an example, and an omen to the burgesses. 
This worship, half domestic, half public, was the most sacred of all in Rome."— 
Mommsen. 



262 Ancient History. 



or wolf festival, in February. Then there were the festival of 
departed spirits {Fera'Ua) and the ghost celebration {Lemur- 
a'lia), lasting three days, besides many others. At certain 
ceremonies of purification {lustratiofis), a pig, a sheep, and 
a bull were sacrificed. These were called the suovetauril'ia. 
The Latin religion lacked the spiritual and aesthetic element 
so prominent in that of the Grreeks, and soon degenerated 
into a dreary round of meaningless ceremonies. The wor- 
ship was very sensuous, consisting chiefly in expressions of 
joy, — songs, games, dances, and banquets. 

Manners and Customs. 

124. Roman houses, in early times, were very plain and 
simple, one story in height, and containing but a single room, 
the floor of which was usually covered with straw; 
the windows being only openings in the walls 



Roman houses. 



closed by shutters, which also supplied the place of chimneys 
for the escape of smoke. When the tide of wealth and luxury 
flowed into Rome, handsome residences took the place of these 
hovels, and many magnificent mansions were erected. 

125. From the vestibule, at the entrance of which the 
word salve (welcome) was carved, the visitor passed into a 
spacious hall, or reception room, called the atrium, 
doors from which led to the other apartments, 
either directly or by intermediate courts. There 



Vestibule, 
atrium, etc. 



were separate rooms set apart for cooking, for the entertain- 
ment of intimate friends, and for the domestics, besides sleep- 
ing-apartments, banquet-halls, and often a chapel for the 
worship of the gods. Here were the lares, or household gods; 
while the images of the dead were placed in the atrium. 
Windows of transparent stone succeeded the rude openings 
with shutters; but, under the empire, glass was used. 

126. The walls and ceilings were painted in various colors, 
or adorned with frescos, representing mythological groups, 
landscapes, or scenes from daily life. The furniture consistei? 



1 



Roman Civilization. 263 

of chairs, tables, dinner-couches, lamps of various forms, 
vases, mirrors, urns, incense-burners, etc.; and 
the floors were sometimes covered with many- 



Furniture. 



colored carpets from eastern looms. Ttie house was heated 
by means of a fire-place or a portable furnace, sometimes by 
the admission of air heated by a furnace below. Oil-lamps 
were used for lighting, in the designing of which much taste 
and skill were expended. The candelabra, or support for the 
lamps, was often very elaborate and beautiful. 

127. The Komans had three meals each day: a light break- 
fast; a lunch, at noon; and a dinner, toward evening, which 
was the chief meal. At the costly banquets given 
by the rich, there was every possible display, as well 



Meals. 



as luxurious entertainment, including crowds of slaves, gor- 
geous furniture, music, and dancing-girls. While 
eating, they reclined on couches, like the Greeks. 



Banquets. 



Instead of knives, they used two spoons, both pointed at the 
end. Each guest brought with him a linen napkin to fasten 
over his breast. 

128. Marriage was celebrated with great ceremony. The 
auspices having been taken, and the bride and bridegroom 
led to the household a*ltar, sacrifices were offered; 
then the marriage-feast was given, after which 



Marriage. 



the bride was conducted to her husband's house, being care- 
fully lifted over the threshold of the atrium, to avoid the ill 
omen of stumbling. The next day a second marriage-feast 
was held, and the bride offered sacrifices to the gods of her 
new home. 

129. The mother took charge of the early education of 
her children, after which the father assumed that duty; in 
fact, the authority of a father over his sons continued until 
his death, unless the son became a flamen of 
Jupiter, or the father resigned his authority. 



Schools. 



Elementary schools for boys and girls seem to have been 
established at Rome at an early period; but, for many con- 



264 



Ancient History. 



turies, the branches studied were very rudimental — merely 
reading, writing, and arithmetic. Later, the literature and 
language of the Greeks were generally taught. The punish- 




Implements of Writing.* « 

ments were severe: Martial, the poet, remarks that before the 
crowing of the cock the air resounded with the 
noise of flogging and the cries of the children. 
Hence the schools must have begun at a very 

early hour of the day. The books and implements of writing 

resembled those of the Greeks. 



Books and 
writing. 



* " The circular wooden or metal case (scrinium) at the left, with a cover, con- 
tains six volumes rolled up (hence the word volume), and labelled that they maybe 
easily distinguished. In front of the case is a stylus and a pentagonal inkstand, 
very similar to those now in use. A little to the right is a pen made of reed, hence 
called calamus. Next to the case of books is the tabella, joined together as with 
hinges, and covered with wax. Above this, is another, pinned as it were to the 
wall with a stylus; to the right of the last, lies a book of tablets open. In the center 
are single vohimes in cases; one of the cases on the left is open, and the other 
shut. On the right, are four volumes, two of which have their titles, one attached 
to the papyrus itself, and the other to the umhilicus or cylinder of wood in its 
center. The books were carried in the scrinium. When a Roman, either in the 
city or on a journey, wished to use books, a slave accompanied him to carry the 
scrinium. The children of the rich were accompanied to school by a slave, who 
carried their books and writing-tablets. Books and documents when not in use 
were deposited in the scrinium^ which was sealed if the documents were im- 



1 



Roman Civilization. 



265 



130. The principal garment of the men was the toga, a 
loose upper garment, under which was worn the tunic, which 
fitted more closely. The toga was permitted to 
none but citizens, and was in all periods tlie gar- 



ment that especially characterized a Roman. It was made of 
pure white wool, and was nearly semicir- 
cular in form. In adjusting it, one end 
was thrown over the left shoulder to the 
front, so that the round side fell out- 
ward; then it was drawn over the right 
shoulder behind the body, so that the 
arm rested as in a sling, while the re- 
maining part was drawn in front and 
thrown over the left shoulder. The 
mantle (pmnula) was another form of 
over-garment. The covering for the feet 
nvas either sandals fastened by straps, or 
a kind of shoes. 

131. The costume of Roman ladies 
consisted of an inner tunic, and a loose 
over-dress (stola), gathered 
in and confined at the waist 
by a girdle and ending in a 




Female 
costume. 



deep border or flounce, which extended 
to the feet. Over these, in the street, 
a kind of shawl (palla) was worn, large 
enough to envelop the whole figure. 
Great care was bestowed upon the dress- 
ing of the hair, over which nets, veils, caps, or turbans were 
worn, of various designs, and often costly materials. The 
other ornaments of the person, as necklaces, bracelets, and 
earrings, were often very rich and beautiful. 



Toga. 



portant. A library of 30,000 and even 60,000 volumes was not uncommon. In the 
time of Augustus, there were 31 libraries in Rome. Others were added by later 
emperors. The Ulpian library was the most important of alV—Leighton's Rome. 



^66 



Ancient History. 



132. The bath constituted a very important element of 
comfort and luxury with the Romans; and, in the later period 
of their history, magnificent buildings were 
erected, splendidly decorated, and supplied with 
every luxury. The bathing-houses in Rome must have been 



Baths. 




very numerous; for Agrippa, the friend of Augustus, added 
no less than 170 to those existing previously. 
They included not only bathing appliances, 
but gymnasia and libraries, all free to the 
public. They were in fact the popular re- 
sorts for amusement and pastime, and an 
exchange of the gossip of the day. The 
famous baths of Caracalla, the most spacious 
of all, belong to a later period of the history. 

133. Funerals resembled those of the 
Greeks; like them, the Romans believed that 

the spirits of the unburied ^van- 

dered about without rest, not 

being permitted to enter Hades. The corpse 
was laid out and placed in the atrium, with empress livia. 
the images of the deceased person's ancestors; while a cypress 
or pine tree was placed before the house as an emblem of 
death. A funeral procession was formed, and the corpse 
was taken to the forum, where an address was delivered by 
one of the relatives, extolling the deeds of the deceased and 
those of his ancestors. After this the procession moved to a 
place beyond the walls where the body was buried, or, in later 
times, cremated. On the ninth day after the funeral, articles 
of food were placed beside the tomb, which was decked with 
garlands; while beside the niches within were placed lamps 
and an inscription. 

Military System. 

134. The divisions of the Roman army were called legions, 
each consisting of infantry and cavalry. The legion originally 



Roman Cimlization. 



267 



was composed of 3000 foot-soldiers and 300 horse ; but it 
afterward underwent various modifications, and contained 
from 5000 to 6000 men. For a long period the 
Roman citizens were all subject to military duty; 
but after the time of Marius, a soldier when en- 



Organiza-tion 
of the army. 



listed remained constantly with the army for twenty years. The 




Slinger. 



Legionary. 



LiCTOR. 



Knight. 



legion then consisted of ten cohorts of 600 men each, all being 
under pay;* and the army was composed of legionaries and 
auxiliaries sent from the provinces, or from allied states. 
Under Augustus the legion consisted of about 7000 men. f 

* " Caesar fixed the annual pay at 225 denarii, equal to about $37 for each soldier, 
payable in three installments of 75 denarii each. The pay remained as fixed by 
Caesar until the time of Domitian."— I/e/f/ZitoJi's Rome. 

t "The legion of Augustus was organized as follows: (1) Infantry— ten 'com- 
panies ' {cohortes), containing 555 men each, except the first, which was of double 



268 



Ancient History, 



135. The legionaries were armed with a short sword and 
the piluni, a kind of javelin or spear; and also carried a 
shield. The knights, or horse-soldiers, wore a coat 
of mail, carried a round shield, and were armed 



with the pilum and sword. There were also mercenaries, such 




Besieging Tower. 

as the slingers from the Balearic Islands and bowmen from 
Crete. Several kinds of military engines were used for 

strength, and therefore contained 1110 men ; total, 6105 men. (2) Cavalry— ten 
'troops' (furmo'), containing 66 men each, except the first, which had twice the 
number; total, 726 men. (3) Artillery—two large and ten small machince, with a 
sufficiency of men to work them, number unknown; probably not less than 70, 
Total (probable) strength of the entire legion, QdOV'—RawUnson's Ancient History. 



Roman Cimlization. 



269 



the taking of cities, such as the battering-ram and the 
besieging-tower, the latter composed of several 
stories, on which were placed soldiers who cleared 
the walls by means of their missiles, or made a 



Besieging- 
towers, etc. 



direct attack by the drawbridges. Besides these, the catapult 
was employed for discharging darts, and the ballista for hurl- 
ing balls or stones at the enemy.* 

136. In making an assault upon a city, the battering-ram 
was used to destroy the lower part of the wall, the catapult 
hurled its darts at the defenders on the top of the 
walls, while the missiles from the ballista de- 
stroyed the battlements. Those who were engaged 



Mode of 
attack. 



in filling up the moat so as to approach the walls, were pro- 
tected from the missiles of the besieged by wooden sheds, 
covered with hides or other incombustible material, and placed 

on rollers so as to be pushed 
forward. Mines were some- 
times dug under the fortifica- 




tions. In the 
mean time, the 
besieged hurled 



Mode of 
defense. 



from the walls stones, darts, 
and fire, pushed the attacking 
ladders back, or seizing the 
assailants with tongs drew 
them into the city. Counter- 
mines were constructed under 
the walls; and huge stones or 
sand -bags were let down to 
protect the walls from the effects of the battering-ram. 

137. Auxiliary to the military system was the triumph, the 

* The Romans first learned the use of the ballista at the siege of Syracuse, 
where Archimedes, by means of these machines, hurled stones weighing 1200 pounds 
upon the vessels of the Romans lying in the harbor. 

t The letters S P Q R on the standard signified Senatus popiilusque Eomanus— 
Senate and {que) People of Rome, 



Roman Standard. 



270 



Ancient History. 



tribute of praise and honor publicly bestowed on a victorius 
general after his return from war. To be the 
central figure in this splendid pageant was the 



The triumph. 



highest object of the soldiers ambition, and excited him to 
glorious deeds of fortitude and valor. It consisted of a grand 
procession along the Via Sacra (sacred street), up to the 
capitol, where a bull or ox was sacrificed to Jupiter.* It was 
an occasion of general rejoicing. The temples were thrown 




Spoils op Jerusalem, from the Arch of Titus, t 

open, and were adorned with flowers; iind the people, in their 
holiday attire, thronged the streets, or stood on balconies or 
temporary scaifoldiiigs, eager to gaze on the spectacle. 

138. The victorious imperator entered the city by the gate 
of triumph, in a chariot drawn by four horses, and was met 
by the Senate and other magistrates ; and the 
procession then passed on, consisting first of the 
civil oflficers; then the spoils of the vanquished; the priests, 
with the victim to be sacrificed; distinguished captives, and 
other prisoners in chains, the lictors with their fasces; then 
the victor, bearing a laurel bough in his right hand, in his 
left a scepter, and wearing a laurel wreath on his head; while 
the army brought up the rear. 



The procession. 



* There was a lesser triumph, at which only a sheep {ovis) was sacrificed. Hence 
this was called an ovation. 

t This structure was erected in Rome to commemorate the taking of Jerusalem 
by Titus. The cut represents a portion of the bas relief on the monument. (See ' 
page 873,) 




ROMAN EMPIRE 

IN THE TIME OF. 

AUGUSTUS 

• ^♦^ 

Scale of Miles 
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 English 



7. 




I 



The Roman Empire. 271 



SECTION V. 

- The Koman Empire. 

139. The reign of Augustus may properly be deemed to 
commence with the victory at Actium; and it lasted forty-five 
years from that event (to 14 a.d.), for Augustus lived to be 
seventy-seven years of age. Although he ruled with absolute 
power, he was careful to retain the forms of the republican 
government, and to avoid every offensive title, such 
as king or dictator; but he caused all the important 
oflQces to be conferred upon himself. Thus, as 



Reign 
of Augustus. 



Imperator (commander-in-chief ), he liad the command of the ar- 
mies, and as president of the Senate and consul, he administered 
the civil government. The Senate still held its sessions, but 
its decrees had no real weight. The long civil wars had made 
the Romans greatly desire tranquillity; and as Augustus ruled 
with equity and moderation, they acquiesced in his authority. 
He kept large armies stationed at various parts of the empire 
to repress all opposition, and he instituted the Praetorian 
Guards* to protect his person. He also appointed a special 

Geographical Study. 
What were the boundaries of the Roman Empire under Augustus? Ans. North, 
the British Channel, the German Ocean, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine 
(Black Sea); East, the Euphrates River and the desert of Syria; South, the great 
African desert ; West, the Atlantic Ocean. How were the provinces divided ? 
Ans. Into three groups— the Western, or European; the Eastern, or Asiatic; and 
the Southern, or African. What were the W^estem provinces? Ans. Hispania 
(Spain), Gallia (Gaul), Germania (Germany), Vindelicia, Rhgetia, Noricum, Pan- 
nonia, Moesia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Thracia (Thrace), Achaia, Sicily, and Sardinia 
(14). What were the Eastern provinces? Ans. Asia, Bithynia, Galatia, Pamphylia, 
Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, and Judea (8). What were the Southern? Ans. -<Egyptus 
(Egj'pt). the Cyrenaica (including Crete), Africa Proper, Numidia, and Mauretania 
(5). How many were there in all? Ans. Twenty-seven. What was the situation 
of each of these provinces? (See Map VII.) WTiat was the extent of the Roman 
Empire? Ans. About 2700 miles, from east to west; and about 1000, from noith 
to south. 



* So called from j^rcetorinm, the name given to the tent of the general in every 
Roman camp. The praetorian guard comprised ten cohorts of a thousand men 
each, and consisted exclusively of Italian soldiers. Augustus kept three cohorts 



272 Ancient History. 



council of state with whom he advised in regard to his 

measures. 

140. Under his direction, campaigns were carried on 

against the tribes in northern Spain and among the eastern 

Alps — the Rha3tians and Vindelicians, as well as in the terri- 
tories bordering on the Rhine and Danube. 
The provinces of Rhastia, Noricum, Pannonia, 
and Moesia were annexed to the empire during his 



Military 
operations. 



reign; but his forces met with a severe defeat in the attempt 
to conquer the Germans living to the east of the Rhine. 
Led by the brave and patriotic Ar-min'i-us, or Her'mann, 
some of the tribes that had submitted to the Romans revolted, 
and the proconsul Va'rus was surprised, and his army cut to 
pieces (a. d. 10). This disaster so preyed upon the emperor's 
mind that he died a short time after (a.d. 14), 
leaving the government to his stepson Tiberius. 



Birth of Christ. 



The reign of Augustus is especially memorable for the birth 

of Christ, in Judea (4 B.C.). [See page 15.] 

141. The Twelve Cesars include Julius, the illustrious 

founder of the line, Augustus, who is considered the first 
emperor {imperatoi')^ and his ten successors. 
Most of these were odious tyrants, distinguished 
for nothing but their sensuality and bloodthirsty 



The twelve 
Caesars. 



cruelty.* Vespasian and his son Titus, the latter ef whom 

in Rome, and distributed the others among the neighboring cities. His successor, 
Tiberius, collected the whole body in a camp just outside the walls of Rome. These 
praetorian guards afterward became the chief instruments of usurpation and 
tyranny. The Roman standing army maintained by Augustus at different points 
of the frontier and in the provinces, amounted to about 350,000 men. 

* The following is a list of the Twelve Caesars, with the date of the death of each: 



Julius Caesar 44 b.c. 

Augustus 14 A.D. 

Tiberius 37 " 

Caligula 41 " 

Claudius 54 " 

Nero 68 " 



Galba 69 

Otho 69 

Vitellius 69 

Vespasian 79 

Titus 81 

Domitian 96 



The Caesarian line really terminated with the death of Nero, who was the last who 
could claim connection with the Julian family either by blood or adoption. 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian constituted the Flavian line, being so called from 
the family name (Flavins) of Vespasian. 



The Roman Empire, 



27R 



was called, ou account of his virtues, the '^Delight of Man 

kind/' were alone worthy to occupy the throne. 

The most noted event of Vespasian's reign was 

the taking and destruction of Jerusalem by 

Ti'tus, the son of Vespasian. This was accomplished after a 



Vespasian and 
Titus. 



terrible siege of six months, during which, according to 
Josephus, more than a million of persons perished. The 
city was razed to the ground, and the inhabitants sold or 
driven into banishment (a.d. 70). 




Reign of Titus 



The Arch of Titls (in its pi esent condition 1881) 

142. The reign of Titus was marked by many disastrous 
events. In the first year occurred the dreadful eruption of 
Vesuvius, during which the cities of Pompeii 
{pom-pe'yi or pom-pa' ye) and Her-cu-la'ne-um 
were overwhelmed by a dense shower of black ashes that fell, 
burying many of the inhabitants in their dwellings. Fugitives 
from Campania flocked into Rome, and a terrible pestilence 
ensued, during which 10,000 persons died daily. This was sue- 



274 Ancient History. 



ceeded by a great conflagration that raged for several days, 
and destroyed a considerable portion of the city. Titus gave 
liberally to relieve the sufferers, and caused the edifices which 
had been consumed to be rebuilt. He also completed the 
Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian. His death occurred 
soon after, in the third year of his reign (a.d. 81); and he 
was succeeded by his brother, Domitian (do-misWe-an), who 
was as remarkable for tyranny and cnielty as Titus had been 
for his goodness. 

143. The period of the empire ending with the reign of 
Domitian is especially noted for the power possessed by 
the praetorian guards, who became virtually the 
real sovereigns after they had been concentrated 
in the vicinity of Rome by Tiberius. This was 



Praetorian 
guards. 



a most momentous event in the history of the empire, since 
it thus became a military des^ootism. During Nero's reign, 
Armenia was taken from the Parthians, but re- 
stored to them on the condition that it sliould be 
held as a tributary province of Rome ; and Britain 



Growth of the 
empire. 



was subdued as far north as the Trent. Owing to the peace 
which prevailed throughout the empire, except on the fron- 
tier, the population greatly increased, the towns became filled 
with inhabitants, and a vast tide of wealth poured into the 
city. The state of society, however, became more and more 
depraved, and dieadful immorality prevailed. 

144. The reigns of the '' five good emperors " (96-180 a.d.) 
formed a better era. These were Ner'va, Tra'jan, Had'ri-an, 
An-to-ni'nus Pi'us, and Marcus Au-re'li-us. Trajan was 
equally great as a monarch and a general, while 
his many virtues entitle him to a place among 
the best of men. He made a conquest of 



Five good 
emperors. 



Dacia, and gained important victories in Armenia, Meso- 
potamia, and Parthia, the cities of Se-leu'cia* and Otes'i-phon 

* Seleucia was founded by Seleucus, and became one of the most magnificent 
cities in the world. It was situated on the west side of the Tigris, about forty miles 



The Roman Empire. 275 

surrendering to his arms. In commemoration of his con- 
quest of Dacia, he erected a column in the forum. Hadrian 
spent thirteen years in visiting the different parts of the em- 
pire to inspect the administration of the government. To 
defend the Roman province of Britain, he caused a rampart of 
earth to be built across the island from Sol way Frith to the 
North Sea. The hordes of barbarians commenced their inroads 
during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, whose death marks the 
commencement of the decline of the Roman Empire (180 a.d.). 
145. During the succeeding century, the army gained still 
greater power; for the soldiers dictated who should reign, 
and the Senate was unable to make any resist- 
ance to their choice. At one period (193 a.d.), 
the praetorians sold the throne to the highest 



Power of the 
praetorians. 



bidder, who happened to be a wealthy senator, named M. 
Did'i-us Ju-li-a'nus; but he only occupied it for two months, 
and never exercised any authority over the provinces.* In 
Britain, Pannonia, and Syria, the legions, indignant at the 
disgraceful conduct of the praetorians, refused to ratify their 
choice, and conferred the imperial purple upon their own 
generals. Of these, Septim'ius Se-ve'rus, a bold and active 
soldier, was fortunate enough to hold it; for he 
marched at once to Rome, won over the praetori- 
ans, and obtained the acknowledgment of the 



Septimius 
Severus. 



Senate. His rule was vigorous and energetic, but that of a mili- 
tary despot. He defeated the Parthians, and took Seleucia, 
Ctesiphon, and Babylon. He also carried on war in Britain 
against the Caledonians, or Scots, wdiom he drove back into 

from Babylon, which was partly despoiled and depopulated to enrich it. Ctesiphon 
was built by the Parthians on the east bank of the Tigris, nearly opposite Seleucia, 
and became the capital of the Parthian monarchy. 

* Gibbon says the donation given by Julianus to each soldier amounted to up- 
ward of two hundred pounds sterling. His competitor was Sulpicianus, father-in- 
law of the preceding emperor, who had been murdered. Sulpicianus had offered 
to the soldiers a donation of about one hundred and sixty pounds. Rawlinson says 
the whole amount paid amounted to about three millions sterling. Julianus was 
soon deposed, condemned to death, and executed. 



276 



Ancient History. 



their fastnesses, and strengthened the wall which had been 
built between the Clyde and Forth rivers to prevent their 
incursions. After a successful reign, he died in 211 A.r>. 

146. During the reign of his son Oaracal'la, a remorse- 
less tyrant, the old distinction between Romans or Italians 
and Provincials was abolished, and Roman citizen- 
ship was given to all the free inhabitants of the 



Caracal la. 



empire. Several of the emperors who subsequently reigned 
were natives of the provinces. The two emperors who suc- 
ceeded Caracalla were perfectly detestable ; but Alexander 
Severus, who followed, was a virtuous young man, of a mild 
and benevolent disposition, and very fond of learning; and 
his government was all that could have been expecte<l from so 
excellent a prince. During his reign the Parthian Empire 
was overturned by a revolt of the Persians nnder 
Ard-e-shir', the founder of the famous dynasty of 
the Sas-san'i-des, who afterward ruled over Persia 



New Persian 
Empire. 



for more than four centuries. Alexander was murdered (335 
A.D.) by some of the sol- 
diers, who chose their own 
general to succeed him. 

147. The government 
being thus at the mercy 

of the army, 

it sometimes 



The tyrants. 




happened that there were 
several persons who claimed 
the throne in different 
parts of the empire, hav- 
ing been chosen by the 
armies which they com- 
manded. These usually 
were called tyrants. Dur- 
ing the reign of Gallie'nus (260-268 a.d.), there were nineteen 
of these pretenders, among whom was 0-den-a'thus, a prince 



Alexander Severus. 



Tlie Roman Empire. 277 



of Palmyra, which had become an independent city, having 
revolted from the Romans on account of the 
exactions of the proconsul. As a reward for his 
services against the Persians, Gallienus conferred 



Odenathus and 
Zenobia. 



on him and his queen Ze-no'bia tlie government of the East, 
thus converting a rival into a friend and partner. 

148. Odenathus having been murdered by some of his 
own family, Zenobia succeeded him in the government. This 
queen was esteemed the most accomplished woman of 
her age, having been instructed by the celebrated scholar and 
critic, Lon-gi'nus. After her husband's death she filled the 
throne of Palmyra for five years; but, by claim- 
ing an independent sovereignty, she gave offense 
to the emperor Aurelian, who, having defeated 



Reign of 
Zenobia. 



her forces in two great battles, besieged and took Palmyra. 
Zenobia was made a captive to grace the triumph of her coh- 
queror, and her favorite minister Longinus was 
executed (273 a.d.). The inhabitants having 
subsequently revolted, the city was destroyed. 



Destructi»n of 
Palnnyra. 



The ruins of Palmyra are among the most interesting relics 
of the ancient world. 

149. In the space of sixty-six years (217-283 a.d.), ten 
emperors perished by the violence of the soldiers; but a 
change took place on the accession of Di-o-cle'- 
tian, one of the most remarkable of the emperors. 
He was a native of Dalmatia, and his j)arents 



Reign of 
Diocletian. 



were slaves; but he had been promoted successively to the 
offices of provincial governor, consul, and praetorian prefect. 
He was proclaimed emperor by the army in 284 a.d. ; and, the 
year after, feeling that the extent of the empire and the 
troubles in which it was involved were too vast for any single 
mind, he divided the government with a colleague. After a 
few years each emperor took an associate with the title of 
Caesar; and thus the empire was divided among four rulers 
— two em2)erors and two Caesars, 



^278 Ancient HisioT'i), 



150. During this reign, the Persians were defeated, and 
Mesopotamia, with several districts beyond the Tigris, was sub- 
dued. In 305 A.D., Diocletian' took the extraor- 
dinary resolution to resign the empire, and obliged 
his colleague to do the same. The Caesars, Ga- 



Abdication of 
Diocletian. 



le'ri-us and Con-stan'tius, then became emperors; and the 
former, with the sanction of Diocletian, appointed the Caesars 
to succeed them. Diocletian retired to Sa-lo'na, in Dalmatia, 
and spent the remainder of his life in the quiet pursuits of 
agriculture; and so well satisfied was he with the change, that 
when Maximian, his former colleague, afterward urged him to 
resume the imperial dignity, he replied: "1 wish you would 
come to Salona and see the cabbages I have planted; for, hav- 
ing once visited my garden, you would never again mention 
to me the name of empire." 

151. Constantius having died at York, in Britain, his son 
Con'stan-tine was saluted emjieror by the army; but Galerius 
and the two Caesars refusing to ratify the elec- 
tion, civil war ensued, in which there were no less 



Constantino. 



than six competitors for the throne, among them the former 
colleague of Diocletian and his son Max-en'tius. Constan- 
tine, after eighteen years of war, finally prevailed over all his 
rivals, and became sole monarch of the empire (a.d. 323). 
During this conflict, while marching against Maxentius, he 
saw, it is said, in the heavens a luminous cross, bearing the 
inscription, in Greek, "Conquer by this;" and under the 
standard of the cross, having defeated his rival, he became a 
convert to Christianity. In order that his resi- 
dence might be nearer the center of his dominions, 
and to strengthen his vast empire, he removed the 



Rennoval of 
the capital. 



capital from Rome to the Greek city Byzantium, which he 
embellished with magnificent churches, palaces, and other 
edifices, and fortified with walls and towers. The emperor 
called it New Rome, but it afterward received the name of 
Constantinople (city of Constantine). 



Conversion of 
Constantine. 



The Roman Empire. 279 



Rise and Progress of Christianity. 

152. The conversion of Constantine was an event of great 
importance, for the Christian church acquired by means of this 
a strengtli which it had not previously possessed. 
Its struggle with Roman paganism was brought 

to a close by the famous Edict of Milan, granting I 

toleration to the Christians (313 a.d.); and, in fact, Christian- 
ity soon became the acknowledged religion of the empire.* 
We shall, therefore, here briefly review the history of its 
rise and progress during the three centuries preceding this 
momentous event. 

153. The founder of Christianity, who was crucified in 
Jerusalem during the reign of the emperor Tiberius, brought 
to the world a religion, designed to do away with 
the polytheistic worship of false gods, to abolish 
the superstitions of paganism, to teach the high- 



Rise of 
Christianity. 



est moral truth, and to infuse a great spiritualizing element 
into society. The gospel was first preached in Judea, Asia 
Minor, and Greece, and afterward in the city of Eome itself, 
and in a few years gained many adherents. The character and 

tendency of the new religion were at first mis- i 

understood, or were purposely misrepresented by I 



those whose interests it opposed. Still it made wonderful pro- 
gress, notwithstanding the bitter persecutions which its follow- 
ers everywhere suffered. 

154. The Roman government usually was tolerant of all 
religions. Rome, indeed, sometimes admitted into her own 
religious system the worship of the gods of those nations which 

* " Constantine did not, as has been supposed, proscribe heathenism ; he did not 
shut up the temples, neither did he forbid the offering of sacrifice. But he com- 
pletely dissociated the state from heathenism, and to a certain extent allied it 
with Christianity; he stopped all magisterial offering of sacrifice; he shut up the 
temples where the ritual was immoral. Though not a baptized Christian till 
shortly before his death, he threw the whole weight of his encouragement on the 
Christian side." — Eawlinson. 



280 Ancient History. 



she had conquered; but Cliristianity was hostile not simply 
to the religion of Rome, but to her civil and politi- 
cal system, which constantly required the ^^erform- 
ance of some act of pagan worship. Hence, the 



Persecution of 
the Christians. 



Roman magistrate could not avoid condemning the Christian 
who was brought before him, because of his refusal to obey the 
laws and to conform to the prescribed usages of the state, 
which required an act of sacrifice to the heathen gods. On 
this account, the Christians were terribly persecuted even by 
such emperors as Trajan and Marcus Aurelius — men renowned 
for their virtues. 

155. Christianity, however, in spite of this opposition, 
continued to spread. Its adherents were at first obliged to 

worship in secret places, and in the dead of night. 
The catacombs of Rome now show how carefully 
they were compelled to conceal the celebration of their re- 
ligious rites, including the burial of the dead. But, in the 
first half of the third century, the i)ersecutions 
were relaxed ; and they were allowed to erect 
edifices for public worship; while their doctrines 
gained believers through the courage and devotion of the 
dauntless followers of Christ. 

156. This period of calm was followed by dreadful perse- 
cutions, ordered by Decius and Valerian, and afterward by 

Diocletian, during whose reign, the tenth and 
last persecution took place,- principally through 
the influence of the Caesar Galerius. An imperial 



Secret worship. 



Toleration of 
Christianity. 



Persecution 

under 
Diocletian, 



edict was issued directing that all Christian churches should 
be razed to the ground, that the Scriptures should be burned, 
and that every Christian should be deprived of office and 
honors; while those who refused to sacrifice to the gods 
should be given over to torture or death. 

157. But these cruelties only stimulated the Christians to 
noble acts of self-renunciation and heroism, and at last 
kindled feelings of sympathy in the hearts of their enemies. 



The Roman Empire. 



281 



Edict of 
Galerius. 



Even Galerius, who had shown the most bitter hatred of the 
new religion, just before his death (311 a.d.) is- 
sued an edict that the Christians should be per- 
mitted " freely to profess their private opinions, 
and to assemble in their conventicles without fear of molesta- 
tion, provided always that they preserve a due respect to the 
established laws and government." But this edict was for a 
while disregarded by the successor of Galerius, and the per- 




Arch of Constantine, Rome, (in its present condition). 

secutions were renewed, until Constantine, two years later, 
issued the edict of Milan, to which we have already referred. 
168. The vision of Constantine, followed by a remarkable 
dream, prompted him, it is said, to adopt the celebrated 
Lab' a-rum, or standard of the cross, which afterward was 
borne by the Christian emperors. This is described as a 'Hong 
pike intersected by a transversal beam. The 
silken veil which iiuns: down from the beam was 



The Labarum. 



curiously inwrought with the images of the reigning monarch 



282 Ancient History. 



and his children. The summit of the pike supported a crown 
of gold, which inclosed the mysterious monogram, at once 
expressive of the figure of the cross and the initial letters of 
the name of Christ."* Fifty guards constantly watched over 
the safety of the Labarum ; and in battle the sight of it in- 
spired the soldiers of Constantine with invincible enthusiasm, 
and scattered terror and dismay through the ranks of the 
opposing legions. 

159. Constantine, until near the close of his life, did not 
forbid the practice of paganism; but he carefully encouraged 
Christianity. He caused the old churches to be 
rei^aired, and splendid edifices to be erected for 
Christian worship. He exempted the Christian 



Measures of 
Constantine. 



priesthood from taxes, and proclaimed the first day of the 
week, Sunday {dies solis), a day of rest. During 
his reign, the celebrated Council of Nice (in 
Bithynia) was held, in which the doctrines of the 



Council of 
Nice. 



Church were more clearly defined (325 A.D.).f Constantine 

died in 337 A. D.J 

160. A few years later, an attempt was made by the emperor 

Julian to re-establish paganism as the national religion. This 
emperor had been educated in Athens, and had 
imbibed a great fondness for the pagan philosophy 
and religion. On his accession, therefore, he 



Revival of 
paganism. 



determined to overthrow Christianity, and restore the ancient 
faith and worship; and hence he has been called *^the Apos- 
tate." To disprove the prophecy of Christ, he attempted to 

* Sometimes the monogram was inscribed on the banderole, or silken veil, and 
the crown omitted. The origin of the name laham7n is unknown. 

+ In this coimcil, which was convened and attended by Constantine, the Nicene 
Creed was adopted in opposition to the opponents of the doctrine of the Trinity," 
and this creed was ratified by Constantine, who pronounced a sentence of im- 
mediate exile upon all who opposed it. 

$ "It must be confessed that the life and actions of this prince were not such 
as the Christian religion demands from those who profess to believe its sub- 
lime doctrines; yet the sincerity of his zeal for Christianity can scarcely be doubted." 
— Mosheim. 



The Roman Empire. 283 

rebuild the temple at Jerusalem; but the design, it is said, 
was frustrated by a miracle, fire-balls breaking out from the 
foundation and driving the workmen away, so that they were 
obliged to abandon the attempt.* Julian was 
afterward killed in a disastrous expedition against 
the Persians, after a reign of sixteen months 



Christianity 
restored. 



(a.d. 363); and his successor, Joyian, re-established Chris- 
tianity as the religion of the state. 

The Ieruptions of the Barbarians. 

161. It is now necessary to consider those great irruptions 
of the barbarous nations of the north and east, that, like a 
vast tide, constantly poured into the empire during more 
than three centuries, successively occupying various parts of 
its dominions, and at last caused its overthrow. These in- 
vasions were commenced by the German races in 
an attack on Pannonia, in the latter part of the 



Germans. 



second century; but they were repelled by Marcus Aurelius. 
The attack was rej)eated in subsequent reigns; 
andj during that of the emperor Decius, the 



Goths. 



Goths, a Teutonic race from the north, made an incursion 



* " The desire of rebuilding: the temple has in every age been the ruling passion 
of the children of Israel. In this propitious moment, the men forgot their avarice, 
and the women their delicacy ; spades and pickaxes of silver were provided by 
the vanity of the wch, and the rubbish was transported in mantles of silk and 
purple. Every purse was opened in liberal contributions, every hand claimed a 
share in the pious labor; and the commands of a great monarch were executed by 
the enthusiasm of a whole people. Yet, on this occasion, the joint efforts of power 
and enthusiasm were unsuccessful; and the ground of the Jewish temple, which is 
now covered by a Mahometan mosque, still continued to exhibit the same edifying 
spectacle of ruin and desolation. An earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery erup- 
tion, which overturned and scattered the new foundations of the temple, are 
attested, -wWn some variations, by contemporary and respectable evidence. Even 
Ammianus Marcellinvis, a contemporary and a pagan, relates that ' whilst Alypius, 
assisted by the governor of the province, urged with vigor and diligence the 
execution of the work, horrible balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, 
with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place, from time to time, 
inaccessible to the scorched and blasted workmen; and, the victorious element 
continuing in this manner obstinately and resolutely bent, as it were, to drive 
them to a distance, the undertaking was abandoned.' ^'—Gibbon. 



284 Ancient History. 



into Dacia, and, crossing the Danube, attacked Moesia and 
Thrace. The Romans suffered a disastrous defeat; the city 
of Phil-ip-pop'o-lis was taken by storm, and 100,000 persons 
were massacred. In a second defeat, after a terrific conflict, 
Decius himself was slain (251 a.d.). 

162. The emperor Claudius, a great general, about twenty 
years later, gained a signal victory over the Goths in Moesia, de- 
stroying one of the mightiest armaments that ever invaded the 
empire; but Aurelian, his successor, finding it impossible to 
withstand the vast hordes of the Goths, now joined by the 
Vandals, a kindred race, relinquished to them the 
large province of Dacia, most of the inhabitants 
of which removed to the south side of the 



Settlement of 

the Goths in 

Dacia. 



Danube (270 a.d.). Aurelian next defeated the Al-e-man'ni, 
a German tribe, who had invaded Italy and threatened the 
city of Rome itself. 

163. The Goths for some time resided peacefully in their 
new homo, and about the middle of the fourth century were 
converted to Christianity. About the same time 
they began to be known as the Visigoths and the 

^ Ostrogoths — that is, the western and the eastern 

Goths— the former inhabiting the Dacian province, the latter 
the regions farther east, on the shores of the Black Sea. But 
now a new horde, called the Huns, an Asiatic 
or Mongolian tribe, poured into- Europe, and 



Visigoths and 
Ostrogoths. 



attacked the Goths, wlio then, having applied to the Romans 
for protection, were allowed to cross the Danube into Moesia. 
A dispute, however, soon after arose between the Goths and 
the Romans, and a great battle was fought near 
Adrianople, in which Valens, the Roman emperor, 
lost his life (378 a.d.). His successor, Theodo- 



Victory of the 
Goths. 



sius the Great, the next year signally defeated them ; and 

great numbers of them were received into the Roman armies. 

164. The subsequent part of the history of the empire is 

chiefly occupied by accounts of the invasions of these bar- 



The Roman Empire. 285 



barous races — the Goths, the Vandals, the Huns, and other 
tribes. This will be perceived as we rapidly sketch the most 
prominent events of the period succeeding the reign of the 
great Theodosius. The complete overthrow of 
paganism and the establishment of Christianity 
in the Roman dominions, as well as the repulse 



Reign of 
Theodosius. 



of the barbarians from every part of the frontier, were striking 
events of this reign — the last that reflected any credit upon 
the Roman name. Theodosius at his death divided the empire 
between his two sons, Ho-no'ri-us being placed on the throne 
of the West, and Ar-ca'di-us on that of the East (a.d. 395). 

165. The reign of Honorius had scarcely commenced, 
when the Goths, indignant that their subsidy had not been 
paid, invaded Greece under their renowned leader 
Al'a-ric, and devastated the whole country from 
Thermopylae to Sparta. Stil'i-cho {-ho), tlie brave 



Invasion o+ 
Alaric. 



and talented minister of Honorius, by a series of masterly move- 
ments, drove out the barbarians; but the pusillanimous Arca- 
dius made a disgraceful treaty with Alaric, which jout an end 
to the campaign. Alaric soon after invaded Italy, and made 
a rapid march for Rome; but he was overtaken near Ve-ro'na 
and entirely defeated by Stilicho (a.d. 403). His departure 
from Italy was, however, purchased by the weak and timid 
Honorius bf the jDayment of a large pension. 

166. During the next five years Stilicho gained several 
victories over the barbarians; but the unworthy 
emperor, tired of his influence and jealous of his 
great fame, treacherously caused him to be put to 



Death of 
Stilicho. 



death, appointing in his stead a minister of neither capacity 
nor worth. The latter having caused a massacre of the fami- 
lies of the barbarians throughout Italy, the Gothic soldiers in 
the Roman army revolted and joined the standard of ALiric, 
who immediately invaded Italy and marched to Rome. The 
city was soon compelled by famine to surrender, and Hono- 
rius, who held his court at Ravenna, refusing to treat for peace. 



286 Ancient History. 



the ancient capital was given up to pillage (a.d. 410). The 
devastation and massacre were frightful; but Ala- 
ric, professing Christianity, spared the churches; 
and, unwilling utterly to destroy the city which 



Taking of Rome 
by the Goths, 



had been the world's mistress, the sixth day after its capture 
he withdrew his forces. While about to invade Sicily, he was 
seized with a mortal disease; and his remains were buried 
beneath the bed of a small stream, in southern Italy. 

167. A-dol'phus, the brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded 
to the sovereignty of the Goths; and having married Pla- 
cid'i-a, the sister of Honorius, he made peace with the Ro- 
mans. He then retired to Spain, and founded in that coun- 
try the Kingdom of the Vis'i-goths. About the 
same time the Vandals settled in the central and 
southern parts of Spain; and the Sue'vi and other 



Kingdom of the 
Visigoths. 



German tribes, in the north-western part. Under the suc- 
cessors of Adolphus, the Vandals were expelled (a.d. 427), 
the other nations subdued, and the Gothic monarchy extended 
over a large part of Gaul as well as Spain. The 
Vandals, crossing into Africa, made themselves 



masters of the northern part of that region. About this 
time also the Franks, Burgundians, and other barbarous tribes 
invaded Gaul. 

168. After a disgraceful reign of twenty-Bght years, 
Honorius died (a.d. 423), and was succeeded by Valentinian 
ni., a weak prince, under the guardianship of his mother 
Placidia, who ruled in his name for twenty-five years. During 
this period the Huns, under their terrible leader 
At'ti-la, having defeated several Roman armies, 
ravaged the Eastern Empire from the Euxine to the Adriatic 
(a.d. 441-450). After extorting immense treasures from the 

1 Emperor of the East, as the price of peace, Attila 

1'"^^ I formed an alliance with the Pranks, and marched 

into Gaul, where he was met and defeated with terrible slaugh- 
ter by the united forces of the Romans and Goths, the former 



Attila s invasion. 



The Roman Empire. 287 

commanded by A-e'tius, (a-e' slie-us) the greatest general of 
his age, called by some '^the last of the Romans" (a.d. 451). 

169. Notwithstanding this great defeat, Attila the next 
year invaded Italy, and committed the most dreadful devasta- 
tions, boasting that ^*the grass never grew on the 
spot where his horse had trod." Many of the 
most flourishing cities were taken and utterly 



Devastations by 
Attila. 



destroyed. The people of the Venetian territory (the A^cn'e-ti) 
took refuge in the neighboring islands; and thus was founded 
a maritime city, which afterward became the 
greatest emporium of Europe. The entreaties of 
Leo, Bishop of Rome, and the payment of an 



Death of 
Attila, 



immense sum, finally induced Attila to depart from Italy; 
and the next year (a.d. 453) his death relieved the empire from 
the terror of his arms. 

170. The emperor Valentinian having been assassinated, 
his widow implored the aid of Gen'se-ric, king of the Vandals, 

to avenge his death. With a numerous fleet he i ■ 

set sail from Carthage, his caj)ital; and, disem- | Rome° 
barking at Ostia, marched to Rome, which be- I ^ 

came a prey to the violence of his followers. The pillage 
of the city lasted fourteen days and nights; and the vessels 
of the Vandals and Moors were laden with the spoils of 
temples and palaces (a.d. 455). During the next twenty- 
one years eight emperors successively assumed the purple, the 
last of whom was Romulus, the son of 0-res'tes, a Pannonian 
chief, who had been in the service of Attila. 

171. The barbarian mercenaries, demanding from Orestes 
a third part of Italy and being refused, revolted, and chose 
Od-o-a'cer, chief of a Gothic tribe called the 
Her'uli, as their leader. Pavia was taken by 
storm; and Orestes, having been made a prisoner, 



End of the 
Western 
Empire. 



was put to death. Odoacer compelled Romulus, surnamed 
in derision Au-gus' tu-lus (that is, Augustus the Little), to 
resign the purple ; and then, abolishing the title and office of 



288 



Ancient History. 



Emperor of tlic West, he proclaimed himself King of Italy 
(a.d. 476). Thus terminated the western division of the 
Great Eoman Empire. The eastern division, usually called 
the Eastern or Greek Empire, continued to exist for nearly 
one thousand years. 



The Roman Emperors. 



[The date is that of the commencement of the reign.] 



Name. 

Augustus 

Tiberius 

Caligula 

Claudius 

Nero 

Galba 

Otho 

Vitellius 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Nerva 

Trajan 

Hadrian 

Antoninus Pius 

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 

Commodus 

Pertinax 

Didius Julianus 

Septimius Severus 

Caracalla 

Macrinus 

Elagabalus 

Alexander Severus 

Maximin 

Gordian I. \ 
Gordian II. ' 
Maximus and Balbinus (joint 

reign) 

Goi dianus III 

Philip 

Decius 

Gallus 



Bate. 

31 B.C. 
14 A.D. 

37 " 
41 " 
54 " 



81 
96 
98 
117 
13S 
101 
180 
192 
193 
193 
211 
217 
217 
222 
235 



238 
238 
244 
249 
251 



Name. 

^milianus 

Valerian 

Gallienus 

Claudius II 

Aurelian 

Tacitus 

Carinus 

Diocletian 

Maximian 

Galerius | 
Constantius J 
Constantine . . . 
Constantino II. 
Constantius 11. 
Constans 

Julian 

Jovian 

Valentinian I , 

Gratian 

Valentinian II 

Theodosius the Great , 

Honorius 

Valentinian III , 

Maximus .' 

Avitus 

Majorian 

Libius Severus 

Arethemius 

Olybrius — 

Glycerius 

Julius Nepos 

Romulus Augustulus. 



Date. 

253 A.D. 

254 " 

2C0 " 

268 " 

2:0 " 

275 " 

283 " 

284 " 
286 " 

305 " 

306 " 

337 " 

361 " 

363 " 

364 " 
375 " 



395 
425 
455 
455 
457 
461 
467 
472 
473 
474 
475 



Remew Outline, 



289 



Topical Review. 



STATESMEN AND GENERALS. 

In what period did they live? 

What was their character f 

With what events connected.^ page 

Junius Brutus 188, 189 

Spurius Cassius 193 

Coriolanus 194 

Appius Claudius 195 

Furius Camillus 196, 198, 200 

Caius Licinius 199 

Regulus 207 

Scipio Africanus 213, 215 

Flauiininus 214 

Scipio Asiaticus 214 

Porcius Cato 216 

^milius Paulus 215 

Scipio ^Euiilianus 219 

Scipio Nasica 220 

Tiberius Gracchus 221 

Caius Gracchus 223 

Caius Marius 224, 227 

Sulla 226,229 

LucuUus 226, 230 

Pompey the Great 226, 234 j 

Sertorius 229 

Crassus 229, 233 

Lucius Catiline 231 

Cicero : 931, 240 

Julius Csesar 2.32, 238 

Cassius 234, 238, 242 

Mark Antony 239, 243 

Octavius Cassar 240, 243 

Lepirlus 241, 242 

Marcus Brutus 238, 242 

EMINENT WRITERS. 
In what period did they live? 
What vjorks did they urrite? 

Livius Andronicus 257 

Platitus 257 

Terence 257 

Varro 258 

Lucretius 2.58 

Virgil 258 

Horace 2.58 

Llvy 258 



PAGE 

Sallust 258 

Juvenal 258 

Suetonius — 258 

Plmy 258 

Seneca 258 

Julius Caesar 258 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

WTio were they.^ 

When did they live/ 

With what events connected? 

Lars Porsenna 189 

Horatius Codes 189, 190 

Mucins Scaevola 189, 190 

Timoleon 204 

Agathocles 184, 206 

Hannibal 209, 213 

Hiero 206, 211 

Dionysius 204 

Viriathus 217 

Archimedes 206 

Jugurtha 223, 224 

Spartacus 229 

Mithridates 225, 232 

Tigranes 226 

Cleopatra 242, 243 

DECISIVE BATTLES. 

WTiere icere they fought? 

IMiat led to them? 

What resxdted therefrom? 

Allia 197 

Sentinum 201 

Beneventum 202 

Cannae 206 

Zama 212 

Cynoscephalae 214 

Pj'dna 215 

Magnesia 214 

Pharsalia 2.35 

Ziela ..., 236 

Thapsus 236 

Munda 237 

Philippi , 232 

Actium. 243 



290 



Ancient History. 



Topical Review of the Roman Empire. 



EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

In what period did they live? 

What was their character? 

With ivhat events connected? page 

Augustus Caesar 271, 272 

Arminius 272 

Titus 372,273 

Trajan 274, 275, 280 

Marcus Aurelius 275, 280, 283 

Septimius Severus 275 

Caracalla 276 

Alexander Severus , 276 

Odenathus 276, 277 

Zenobia 277 

Longinus , 277 

Diocletian 277, 278 

Constantine 278, 281, 282 

Decius 281, 283 

JuUan 282, 283 

Aurelian 277, 284 

Theodosius 285 

Stilicho 285 

Alaric 285 

Adolphus 286 

Attila 286 

Genseric 287 

Odoacer 287 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

When did they occur? 

TMiat led to them? 

Mliat resulted therefrom? 
Institution of the Praetorians. 

271, 274, 275, 277 

Conquest of Moesia 272 

Destruction of Jerusalem 273 

Abolition of the Provincial System. . 276 

Abdication of Diocletian 278 

Vision of Constantine 278, 281 

Edict of Milan 279 

Council of Nice 282 

Invasion of the Germans 283, 286 

Invasions of the Goths 283, 284, 285 

Invasion of the Huns 284, 286 

Invasions of the Vandals 284, 286, 287 

Taking of Pavia 287 



ROMAN PROVINCES. 
Wliat was their situation? 
When were they annexed to the em,- 
pire? 
Any oilier facts relating to them? 

PAGE 

Rhastia 272 

Noricum 27'2 

Pannonia 272, 283 

Moesia 272, 284 

Armenia 274 

Britain 272, 275 

Mesopotamia. 278 

OBJECTS or INTEREST. 

How are they described? 

When and by whom were they erected 
and established? 

For tvhat purpose? 

Roman Forum 249, 250 

Basilicae 250, n 

Mamertine Prison 250 

Campus Martins 251 

Pantheon 251, 252 

Aqueducts 252 

Circus 253 

Amphitheater 253 

Colosseum 254 

Pompey's Theater 255 

Mausolea C55 

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

WJiat account is given of them? 

College of Augurs 260 

College of Pontiffs 260 

Haruspices 260 

Flamens 261 

Festivals 261 

Houses 262 

Household Gods 262 

Furniture 263 

Marriage -263 

Schools 263 

Writing and Books 264 

Costume of Males 265 

Costume of Females 265 

Funerals 266 

Military Syst^ii 267 



General Chronological Me (new. 291 



Geneeal Chronological Review. 



B.C. 

2700. Commencement of the first Egyptian dynasty. 

2200. Babylon founded. 

1652. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 

1550. Cecrops at Athens. 

1492. Cadmus in Boeotia. 

1200. Migration of the Hellenic races. 

1184. Troy burned by the Greeks. 

1124. Great Dorian migration. 

1095. Saul king of Israel. 

1055. David begins to reign over Israel. 

1015. Accession of Solomon, 

975. Secession of the Ten Tribes. Kingdom of Israel divided. 

878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 

776. Commencement of the Olympiads. 

753. Rome founded. 

747. Era of Nabonassar. 

721. Samaria taken. End of the kingdom of Israel. 

625. Nineveh taken by the Medes. 
Periander tyrant of Corinth. 

624. Draco gives laws to Athens. 

594, Legislation of Solon at Athens. 

587. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 

586. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 

560. Usurpation of the government of Athens by Pisistratus, 

554. Croesus taken prisoner by Cyrus. End of the kingdom of Lydia. 

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 

536. Restoration of the Jews by an edict of Cyrus. 

525. Pelusium taken, and Egypt subdued by Cambyses. 

522. Accession of Darius Hystaspes. 

514. Conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristogiton. 

510. Expulsion of Hippias from Athens. 

509. Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome. 

501. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. 

494. Creation of the office of Tribunes at Rome. 

490. Battle of Marathon. 



29^ Ancient History. 



B.C. 

486. First agrarian law proposed at Rome. 

485. Accession of Xerxes to tlie throne of Persia, 

483. Banishment of Aristides by tlie Ostracism. 

480. Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. 

479. Battle of Platsea. 

471. Confederacy of Delos. Commencement of Athenian supremacy. 

Banishment of Themistocles by the Ostracism. 
468. Death of Aristides. 

461. Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. 
458. The ^quians defeated by Cincinnatus. 
451. Appointment of the Decemvirs at Rome. 
449 Death of Cimon. End of the Persian war. 
445. Intermarriage of patricians and plebeians permitted at Rome. 
431. Commencement of the Peloponnesian War. 
429. Plague at Athens. Death of Pericles. 
415. Expedition against Sicily under Alcibiades and Nicias. 
405. Battle of ^gospotamos. 

Dionysius tyrant of Syracuse. 
404. Death of Alcibiades. 

403. The Thirty Tyrants expelled from Athens. 
401. Battle of Cunaxa, and retreat of the Ten Thousand. 
399. Condemnation and death of Socrates. 
394. Victory of Agesilaus at Coronea. 

The Spartan fleet defeated by Conon. 
390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. 
387. Peace of Antalcidas. 
384. Birth of Aristotle at Stagira. 

371. Battle of Leuctra. The Spartans defeated by Epaminondas. 
366. The Licinian laws proposed at Rome. 
362. Battle of Mantinea. Death of Epaminondas. 
359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedon. 
355. End of the Social War in Greece. 
346. End of the Sacred War. 

344. The freedom of Syracuse restored by Timoleon. 
343. War between the Romans and Samnites. 
339. Latium annexed to the Roman territory. 
338. Battle of Chgeronea. 
336. Accession of Alexander the Great. 
334. Battle of the Granicus River. 
333. Battle of Issus. 



General Chronological lleniem. 298 



B.C. 

8ol. Battle of Arbela. 

831. The Spartans under Agis defeated by Antipater. 

323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. 

323. The Lamian War. Defeat of Leosthenes. 

321. Defeat of the Romans by the Samuites, 

Perdiecas assassinated. 
317. Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. 

Despotism re-established at Syracuse by Agathocles. 
812. Kingdom of the Seleucidte founded. 
305. The Samnites subdued by the Romans. 
801. Battle of Ipsus. Defeat of Antigonus. 
295. Final defeat of the Samnites at Sentinum. 
283. Death of Ptolemy Lagi. 

Kingdom of Perganms founded. 
281. Lysimachus defeated by Seleucus. 
280. Seleucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. 

Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. 
279. The Gauls defeated at Delphi. 
275. Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans at Beneventum. 
264. Rome mistress of all Italy. 

Commencement of the First Punic War. • 
261, Antiochus Soter defeated by the Gauls. 
255. Regulus defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians. 
247. Death of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
243. Aratus leader of the Achaean league. 
241. End of the First Punic War. 

Agis (IV.), king of Sparta, put to death. 
221. Sparta taken by Antigonus Doson. 
219. Saguntum taken by Hannibal. 
218. Commencement of the Second Punic War. 

The Romans defeated by Hannibal, at the Ticinus and Trebia. 
217. Victory of Hannibal at Lake Trasimenus. 
216. The Romans defeated at Cannae. 
213. Assassination of Aratus of Sicyon. 

212. Taking of Syracuse by Marcellus. Death of Archimedes. 
207. Defeat and death of Hasdrubal. 

Defeat of the Spartans by Philopoemen. 
205. Conquest of Spain by Scipio. 
202. Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama. 
197. Philip of Macedou defeated at Cynoscephalae. 



^94 Ancient History. 



B.C. 

190. Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Magnesia. 
183. PhilopcEmen put to death by the Messenians. 

Death of Hannibal by suicide. 
168. Battle of Pydua. End of the Macedonian monarchy. 
146. Taking of Corinth by Mummius. Greece a Roman province. 

Destruction of Carthage by the Romans. 
140. Viriatus assassinated, and Lusitania subjugated by the Romans. 
133. Spain completely subjugated by the Romans. 
132. Death of Tiberius Gracchus. 
121. Caius Gracchus put to death, 
106. Jugurtha taken prisoner by Marius and Sylla. 
102. The Teutons defeated by Marius. 
101. The Cimbrians defeated by Marius. 

90. The Social War. 

88. Commencement of the Mithridatic War. First Civil War. 

87. Marius's proscription. 

82. Sylla's proscription. 

72. Assassination of Sertorius in Spain. 

71. Spartacus defeated and slain. 

66. Pompey clears the Mediterranean of pirates. 

Mithridates subdfted. Pontus a Roman province. 

63. Conspiracy of Catiline. 

60. First Triumvirate. 

55. Invasion of Britain by Caesar. 

53. Crassus defeated and slain by the Parthians. 

48. Battle of Pharsalia. Pompey defeated, 

46. Battle of Thapsus. Death of Cato. 

44. Assassination of Caesar. 

43. Second Triumvirate. 

Assassination of Cicero by order of Antony. 

42. Battles of Philippi. Death of Brutus and Cassius. 

31. Battle of Actium. 

30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra. 

29. Octavius emperor under the title of Augustus. 
4. Birth of Christ. 

A.D. 

10. Defeat of Varus by the Germans. 

14. Death of Augustus. Accession of Tiberius. 

70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 

79. Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 



General Chronological Review. §95 



A.D. 

81. Death of Titus. 
98. Accession of Trajan. 
117. Accession of Hadrian. 
161. Accession of Marcus Aurelius. 
180. Death of Marcus Aurelius. 

193. Didius Julianus buys the empire of the Praetorians. 
211. Death of Septimius Severus. 
226. End of the Parthian Empire. 
235. Assassination of Alexander Severus. 
251. Decius defeated and slain by the Goths. 
270. Dacia surrendered to the Goths. 
273. Palmyra taken by Aurelian. 
284. Diocletian proclaimed emperor. 
305. Abdication of Diocletian. 
311. Edict of Galerius in favor of the Christians. 
313. Edict of Milan issued by Constantine. 
323. Constantine emperor. 
325. Council of Nice. 
337. Death of Constantine. 

361. Accession of Julian. Attempt to re-establish paganism. 
363. Death of Julian the Apostate. 

Christianity restored by Jovian, 
378. Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianople. 
395. Division of the Empire by Theodosius. 
403. Alaric defeated at Verona by Stilicho. 
410. Rome pillaged by the Goths. 
423. Death of Honorius. 
427. The Vandals expelled from Spain. 
441. Invasion of the Huns. 

451. Attila, king of the Huns, defeated by Aetius. 
455. Rome pillaged by the Vandals and Moors. 
476. Romulus Augustulus, the last of the Roman emperors, deposed. 

Odoacer proclaimed king of Italy. 

End of the Western Empire. 



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No. 8, 




PART II. 

MmMYAL AND MODERN HISTORY. 



I. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 

A General View of Europe, a.d. 500. 

1. Before taking np the march of events following the 
fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is necessary that we 
glance at the general state of Europe at that 
period. While the Empire was gradually becom- 
ing enfeebled, in the slow process of national 



Conquering 
races. 



corruption and decay, its ruin was precipitated by the repeated 
irruptions of the conquering races — the Goths, the Vandals, 
the Sueves; and other German tribes, also the Huns. These, 
at the end of the fifth century (a.d. 500), had established 
themselves as shown in the map (Map No. VIH.). Besides these 
races we must mention the Burgundians, a peo- 
ple who, in the beginning of the fifth century. 



Burgundians. 



had made their way from the shores of the Baltic, and located 
themselves in the country between the Rhone and the Alps, 

Geographical Study, Map No. VIII. 

What was the situation and extent of: The Eastern Empire? East Gothic 
Kingdom ? West Gothic Kingdom ? Burgundian Kingdom ? Frankish Kingdom ? 
Suevian Kingdom ? Vandal Kingdom ? 

Where iras the territory of: The Huns ? Slavs ? Gepid^? Lombards ? Danes ? 
Scots ? Ticts ? Britons ? Saxons ? Saracens ? Alemanni ? 

What was the situation of: Persian Kingdom ? Illyricum ? Thrace ? Pontus ? 
Thuringia? Francia? Constantinople? Antioch? Nisibis? ^lia? Salona? Ravenna? 
Milan? Aries? Narbonne? Toulouse? Cordova? Toledo? Metz? 



298 MedicBval History. 

where at the period referred to they had founded a kingdom 

bearing their name. 

2. The Goths, the first of the invading races who had 

pushed southward from Scandinavia, were now divided into 
the two branches of Eastern Goths (Ostrogoths) 
and Western Goths (Visigoths). The former 



Ostrogoths. 



had established themselves in Italy and in the lands lying 
immediately north of it; the latter possessed the 
southwestern part of France and the whole of 



Visigoths. 



Spain except the small portion in the northwest occujiied by 
the kingdom of the Sueves (Suevi). This was an 
adventurous German race, one horde of whom 



Sueves. 



located themselves in the south of Germany (hence the name 
Swabia); and another made a conquest of northern Spain, 
from which they were in part driven by the more powerful 
Visigoths. 

3. Early in the fifth century, the Alans,* a people under 
Gothic influence, established themselves in the central part 
of the Spanish peninsula, possessing a territory 
that extended from sea to sea. Their domin- 



Alans. 



ions having been conquered by the Sueves, they had ceased, 

at the period here spoken of, to have any place in the map of 

Europe. 

4. The Vandals, who had occupied southern Spain, f had, 

at this period, passed into Africa, along the northern coast of 
which they founded a kingdom, with Carthage 
as its capital. This was the only Teutonic king- 



Vandals. 



dom formed in that continent. It embraced also the large 
islands in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, includ- 



* " The Alans are a puzzling race, our accounts of whom are somewhat contra- 
dictory, but who ma5' perhaps be most safely set down as a non-Aryan, or, at 
any rate, a non-Teutonic people, who had been largely brought under Gothic influ- 
ences."— i^^reeman's iJ/.s#oricaZ Geography of Europe. 

t " The Vandals, though they passed altogether out of Spain, have left their 
name to this day in its southern part imder the form of Andalusia, a name which, 
under the Saracen conquerors, spread itself over the whole peninsula, "—i^reeman. 



General View of Europe. 209 

ing Sicily. The Saxons, another fierce and powerful Teutonic 
race, had, for about half a century, kept up a series 
of invasions of the island of Britain, after its aban- 



Saxons. 



Gepidae and 
Lombards, 



donment by the Komans, and had now established themselves 
in several parts of the island. 

6. Another Teutonic race called the Gep'i-dae had made 
their home in Dacia; while the Lombards were about to cross 
the Danube into Pannonia. Subsequently the 
latter race allied themselves with the Avars 
(a-varz'), and after destroying the kingdom of 
the GepidaB, poured into Italy, where they founded a kingdom 
of their own. The Slavonic races (Slavs) at this 
time were just hovering on the northern frontier 
of the Eastern Empire, prepared to repeat in the east the part 
which the Teutons had played in the west. 

6. At this time the Eastern Roman Empire extended from 
the Danube to the southern limit of Egyj)t, and from the 
Adriatic Sea on the west to the Persian Kingdom 
on the east. Thus it maintained its integrity 



Slavs. 



Eastern Ennpire. 



while the barbaric nations were dismembering the Western 
Empire, out of which the various states of mediaeval and 
modern Europe were afterward formed. 

7. Nearly all these conquering races were Aryans; indeed, 
Europe from the earliest historic period has been almost 
exclusively an Aryan continent. To find it other- 
wise we should have to go back probably to 2500 



Aryans. 



B.C., a period antecedent to those great Aryan migrations from 
Asia of the Greek and Italo-Celtic races that swept westward 
over Europe, driving before them or exterminating the races 
that previously occupied it. Remnants of the latter are still 
discovered in the Basques (basks) of the Pyrenees, 
the relics of a great people, and the Fins and 



Basques, etc. 



Laps of northern Europe. These are all that survive the 
conquests of the Celts, who were probably the vanguard of 
the Aryan conquering tribes. 



300 MedicBval History. 



ETHNOLOGICAL SYNOPSIS 

OF THE RACES THAT INVADED EUROPE. 

I. ARYANS, or INDO-EUROPEANS. 

I. Gr.*:co-Roman Races. 
II. Celtic Races. 

1. Gauls. 

2. Britons. 

3. Gael. 

a. Irish. 

b. Old Scots. 
III. Slavo-German Races. 

1. Teutonic races. 

a. Goths, Vandals, and Gepidse. 

b. Scandinavians, or Normans. 

c. Germans and Allemanni. 

1. Frisians. 

2. Saxons, Angles, Jutes. 

3. Low Germans, 
d Franks. 

e. Burgundians. 
/. Lombards. 
g. Sueves, 

2. Slavs, or Slavonians. 

a. Czechs. 

b. Poles. 
Cw Baltics. 

1. Lithuanians 

2. Letts. 

3. Wends. 
II. NON-ARYAN RACES. 

I. Basques, Fins, Laps. 

II. Turanian Races. 

1. Huns. 

2. Avars. 

3. Bulgarians. 

4. Magyars. 

5. Turks. 

a. Seljuks. 

b. Ottomans. 
III. SEMITIC. 

Saracens. 



No. 9. 




CHAPTER II. 

The Eastern Empiee. 

1. The Eastern or Byz'au-tine Empire, sometimes called 
tiie Greek Empire, was founded in a.d. 305, when Tlieodosius 
divided the Roman Empire between his two sons, 
Honorius and Arcadius, assigning to the latter 



Foundation. 



all the portion lying between the Adriatic Sea and the upper 
Tigris River. Arcadius was a weak monarch, 
who left the administration of the government to 



Arcadius. 



ambitious and corrupt ministers, while he himself lived in 
oriental luxury, indifferent to his duties and careless of the 
condition of his subjects. His death occurred in 408. 

2. During the reign of his successor, Tlieodosius II., the 
Huns under Attila, who assumed the title of the ''Scourge of 
God," invaded the empire, and having vanquished 
the armies sent to oppose him, committed the 



most dreadful ravages. They dictated terms of peace in the 
suburbs of Constantinople, exacting the enormous annual 
tribute of 2100 pounds of gold, and the immediate payment 
of an immense sum. Soon afterward, on the death of Attila 
(453), the Hunnish Empire was dissolved; and the Ostro- 
goths, under their leader The-od'o-ric, became the dominant 
people in eastern Europe. 

3. Theodoric made war upon the Slavonic tribes, and con- 
quered the lands lying between the Adriatic and Black seas. 

Geographical Study, Map No. IX. 

Wliat was the situation and extent of : The Eastern Empire ? (Name the coun- 
tries it embraced.) Kingdom of the Franks? West Gothic Kingdom ? Suevian 
Kingdom ? 

Where ivas the territory of: The Saxons ? The Frisians ? The Angles ? Britons ? 
Scots ? Danes ? Lombards ? Gepidse i Avars ? Saracens '? Where was the Persian 
Kingdom ? 



302 MedicBxal History. 

There he established a kingdom, and became the friend and 
ally of Zeno, tlie Greek emperor, who lavished 
upon him all kinds of honors. This friendship. 



Theodoric. 



however, was not lasting; and Theodoric led his hosts into 
Thrace, and threatened Constantinople. To save himself 
Zeno instigated or commissioned the Gothic conqueror to 
enter Italy, where 0-do-a'cer ruled, as he claimed, by author- 
ity of the Eastern emperor, over a population made up of 
many elements — native Italians, Visigoths, Huns, Vandals, 
Franks, etc. 

4. Theodoric, availing himself of Zeno's permission, in- 
vaded Italy, and after four years' war, in which he received 
assistance from the Visigoths of Gaul and Spain, 
Odoacer was deposed and put to death, and The- 
odoric, being invested with the title of king of 



Gothic 

conquest of 

Italy. 



Italy, fixed his capital at Eavenna (493). Subsequently he 
took up his residence at Rome (500). He reigned over Italy 
thirty-three years (493-526), with such wisdom and modera- 
tion as to earn the title of ''Great." A large part of the 
Gothic nation had been transported into Italy, and after its 
conquest one third of all the lands were divided 
among the followers of Theodoric; and yet such 



Government. 



was the efficiency of his government, that peace and pros- 
perity were everywhere prevalent, and it was a common say- 
ing '' that a purse of gold might be safely left in the fields." 

5. The famous reign of Jus-tin'i-an over the empire of 
the East commenced in 527, and lasted thirty-eightr years. 
It is remarkable for the code of laws Avhich the 



Justinian. 



emperor caused to be framed, and for the vic- 
tories of Bel-i-sa'ri-us and Nar'ses, the two greatest generals 
of the age. The former defeated the Vandals, in Africa, and 
recovered the provinces which they had subdued 
(534). He next reduced Sicily, and, crossing into 



Belisarius. 



Italy, defeated the Goths and captured their capital, Ra-ven'na 
(539). In 544 the barbarians having, under their king 



The Eastern Empire. 303 

Tot'i-la, again invaded and reconquered Italy, Belisarius 
waged war against them for five years, but with very inade- 
quate forces; and, through the jealousy and unjust suspicions 
of Justinian, was finally recalled. 

6. After several years of retirement, Belisarius, in his old 
age, was called upon to defend Constantinople against the 
Bul-ga'ri-ans and Sla-vo'ni-ans,* who, after com- 
mitting frightful ravages in various jiarts of the 
empire, threatened Constantinople. The aged 



Bulgarians and 
Slavonians. 



hero, by his skill and valor, entirely defeated these fierce bar- 
barians; but, four years afterward, notwithstanding his great 
services, he was unjustly accused of treason by the emperor, 
and the greater part of the last years of his life was passed in 
prison. He died in 565. 

7. Meanwhile the war had been continued against the 
Goths in Italy. Eome, which had been taken by Totila, and 
its entire destruction threatened, was recaptured 
by Narses, and the Goths were defeated with 
great slaughter, their king, Totila, being slain 



Conquest of 
Italy. 



(552). After he had gained another great victory over 
the Goths the next year, and defeated the Franks and other 
German tribes who had ravaged the peninsula from the Alps 
to Otranto, Narses entered Rome as a conqueror, and was 
afterward appointed by Justinian Exarch of Italy. He fixed 
his court at Ravenna, and continued to govern the country 
till the death of Justinian (5G5), by whose successor he was 
recalled. He died in Rome a short time afterward, at the 
age, it is said, of 95. 

8. During the reign of Justinian, the A-vars',f a race 
similar in origin to the Huns, fleeing from the Turks, who 

* The Bulgarians were the remains of the Huns who. after the death of Attila, 
retreated to the Euxine and the lake Mseotis. The Slavonians were a barbarous 
race from the plains of Russia, who afterward settled in the vicinity of the 
Baltic Sea. 

t "In the thirty-first year of the reign of Justinian, an embassy of the Avars 
appeared at Constantinople. This people, Avho were Tartars, and belonged, like 



304 MedicBval History. 



lived at that time near the Altai Mountains, crossed the 
Tan'a-is and Bo-rys'the-nes (Don and Dnieper 
rivers), and advanced into Poland and Germany. 



They then passed to the Danube, and, subduing the Bulgari- 
ans, took possession of the country which the latter had 
occupied (Dacia). This period is also noted for the passage 
to the south of the Lombards,* who had been 
invited by the emperor to enter Noricum and 



Pannonia, in order to check the advance of another barbarous 
nice called the Ge})'i-da3. These, after a thirty 
years' war, were almost entirely exterminated by 



Gepidae. 



the Lombards, under Al'bo-in, assisted by the Avars, the 
latter of whom continued to occupy Dacia and some of the 
adjacent countries for more than two centuries. 

9. In tiie reign of Justinian's successor, the Lombards, 
under Alboin, entered Italy ( 568), being invited, as it is 
said, by Narses, in revenge f(jr the affront of liis 
recall. In a short time they conquered the whole 
country, except a small portion which continued, 



Conquest of 
Italy. 



under the name of the Exarchate of Ravenna, in possession 
of the Eastern Empire. The kingdom of the Lombards in 
Italy lasted more than two centuries, their seat of govern- 
ment being Pa'via. The famous 'Mron crown" of the Lom- 

the Huns, to the Turkish stock, had then arrived at the foot of Mount Caucasus, 
flying before the Turks, whose name now appears for the first time in laistory. 
The Avar ambassadors professed their willingness to demote themselves to the ser. 
vice of the emperor, and destroy all the enemies who disturbed his repose; but 
they claimed, as the price of their alliance and the reward of their valor, precious 
gifts, annual subsidies, and fruitful possessions. Justinian was now above seventy- 
five j'ears; his mind, as well as his body, was feeb^''. and languid; and the con- 
queror of Africa and Italy, careless of the permanent interest of his people, aspired 
only to end his days in the bosom of inglorious peace. In a studied oration, he 
imparted to the Senate his resolution to dissemble the insult and to purchase the 
friendship of tlie Avars; and the whole Senate, like the mandarins of China, 
applauded the incomparable wisdom and foresight of their sovereign."— (rzbfcoii's 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 

* The name is derived from the Latin form Langobardi, or Longobardi. sup- 
posed by some to refer to the long beards by which these people were character- 
ized, lint more probably derived from the word parta, or barte, a battle-ax. The 
Romans first came in contact with this tribe on the lower Elbe in the first century. 



The Eastern Empire. 305 

bards is said to have been presented to one of their queens by 
the celebrated Roman pontiif, Gregory the Great, as a reward 
for converting the king to the Catholic faith (about 600). 
10. The reigns of Justinian and several of his successors 
were much disturbed by the encroachments of Persia, then 
the most extensive and powerful monarchy of 
the East; but the emperor He-rac'li-us, in tlie 



Persia 



beginning of the seventh century (622-628), in three great 
expeditions, in which he displayed remarkable boldness, per- 
severance, and military skill, defeated Khos'ru, r 
tlie greatest of the Persian monarchs, and effectu- 



Khosm. 



ally broke the Persian power. Eight years afterward, the last 
of the Persian dynasty called the Sas-san'i-des, which had 
occupied the throne for four centuries, were de- 
feated by the Saracens, and in a few years the 



Saracens. 



whole of the Persian dominions had yielded to their victorious 
arms. 

11. The reign of Heraclius is notable for the commence- 
ment of the attacks of the Saracens upon the Eastern Empire. 
Syria was subdued (638), Damascus * and Jeru- 
salem falling a prey to these Mohammedan zea- 
lots seven centuries after Pompey had achieved 



Saracen 
conquests. 



the conquest of Syria and annexed it to the Roman Republic. 
Egypt shared the same fate within the next two years, Alex- 
andria being taken after a siege of fourteen months (640). 
It was on this occasion that the great Alexandrian library was 

* " This renowned and beautiful city, one of the largest and most magnificent of 
the East, and reputed to be the oldest in the world, stood in a plain of wonderful 
richness and fertility, covered with groves and gardens, and bounded by an 
amphitheater of hills, the skirts of Mount Lebanon. A river, called by the ancients 
Chrj-sorrhea, or the stream of gold, flows through tliis plain, feeding the canals 
and water-courses of its gardens, and the fountains of the city. The commerce of 
the place bespoke the luxuriance of the soil; dealing in wines, silks, wool, prunes, 
raisins, figs of unrivaled flavor, sweet-scented waters, and perfumes. The fields 
were covered with odoriferous flowers, and the rose of Damascus has become 
famous throughout the world. This is one of the few, the very few, cities famous 
in ancient times, which still retain a trace of ancient delights."— /?-vi?i(j's Mahomet 
and His Successors. 



306 MedlcBval History. 

burned, the bigoted Mohammediui Caliph saying that, if the 
books agreed witli the Koran, they were unnecessary; and if 
they contradicted it they were pernicious.* 

12. During the next half century the empire was despoiled 
of province after province by the irresistible valor and activity 
of the Saracens, who twice laid siege to Constantinople itself, 
but were repelled from its walls, partly by the use of the 
famous '* Greek fire."f During the same period, also, the 
Bulgarians, who in the previous century had been 
subject to the Avars, crossed the Danube, fol- 



Bulgaria. 



lowed by various Slavonian tribes, the Ser'vi-ans, Bos'nians, 
and Cro-a'tians, and, having vanquished the Koman. sPrmics 
sent against them, founded (680) the Kingdom of Bulgaria, 
in the country a part of which still bears this name. This 
kingdom was a formidable enemy of the Greek Empire till 
the eleventh century, when, after a war of several years, it 
was entirely subdued. It then became again a province of 
the empire, and so remained till 1187, when it once more 
regained its independence. 

13. In the ninth century (805), tlie Eussians.J; having 

* The Alexandrian library was a vast collection of manuscripts. The order of 
the Caliph was punctually obeyed, the books being distributed among the five 
thousand baths of the city; but so numerous were they that it took six months to 
consume them. 

+ The Greek fire was an invention of the Saracens, but a deserter from the ser- 
vice of the Cali;^)h had disclosed the secret of its preparation to the emperor. It 
was composed of bitumen, sulphur, and pitch, and was poured from caldrons, or 
projected in flre-balls, or on arrows and javelins, around which flax was twisted, 
saturated with the compound. It was also blown through long copper tubes, some- 
times from the prows of fire-ships. For four centuries the mode of preparing this 
inflammable compound was kept as a secret by the Greek Empire, and the ven- 
geance of heaven was imprecated upon whomsoever should divr.'go it, the people 
being taught to believe that an angel had communicated it for the defense of Con- 
stantinople. 

% " The Russian is, of all the present European peoples, the one which may lay 
the best-grounded claims to antiquity of residence in its present abodes. In the 
darkness of ancient centuries, extended over vast plains, into which the genius of 
Greece and the arms of Rome never penetrated, this people were slowly ripening 
to nationality during the ages of classic splendor, when Solon gave laws to the 
Athenians, and Rome Strove after principles of public justice and liberty. "-- 
Bancroft 



The Eastern Empire. 307 

descended tlie Dnieper Kiver in their rude boats and sailed 
into the Bosporus, made an attack upon Con- 
stantinople, but were repulsed. A few yean 



Russians. 



ater (889), the Magyars {mod-yars'), or Hungarians, com- 
menced to make irruptions into the countries near the 
Danube, extending their ravages westward, into the German 
Empire. They defeated the Bulgarians, and threatened Con- 
stantinople. The next formidable enemy of the empire were 
the Turks, who abandoned their ancient habita- 
tions in Central Asia; and, in the eleventh cen- 



Turks. 



tury, ^taking advantage of the dissensions of the Saracens, 
invaded their dominions and captured Bagdad (1055). Pre- 
vious to this they had carried their conquering arms us 
far as India. In 1090 they had subdued Asia Minor and 
Syria, and extended their sway from the Hellespont to the 
borders of Chinese Tartary. Of this kingdom Ispahan was 
the capital. 

14. These Turks belonged to the tribe called Seljuks* 
(fferjooJcs), and are not to be confounded with the Ot'to- 
man Turks, to be treated of hereafter. The dominions of 
the Seljuks were afterward divided, four monarchies being 
formed, of which Persia ^'as the chief; and a new kingdom 
was established in Asia Minor, called the Sultanate of Roum 
(room), which lasted about two centuries (from 
1075 to 1272), during which period it waged 



Roum. 



frequent wars with the Creek Em])ire. Its capital was at 
first Nl'ce, in Bithynia, but in 1097 was removed to I-co'- 
ni-um.f It was the taking of the holy sepulcher 
by the Seljuks that led to those remarkable ex- 



Crusades. 



peditions called the Crusades. In the first of these, Nice, 



* " The Seljuks were a tribe of Tui'comans. followers and subjects of their great 
chief Seljuk, who first became distinguished in history by the conquests of the 
Sultan Mahmoud, wlio was succeeded by Alp Arslan (The Lion), under whom the 
Emperor Romanus was defeated and taken prisonei."— <?ifo??o?i. 

t An ancient city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor. The Kingdom of Roum {i.e. of the 
Romans) was afterward called the Kingdom of Iconium. 



308 



MedicBxal History. 



the capital of Sol'y-man, sultan of Roum, was taken (1097), 
and soon after Antioch and Jerusalem * (see page 409). 

15, In the fourth of these expeditions, during the reigi 
of a usurping emperor at Constantinople, the Crusaderg 
(French and Venetians) were induced by the son of the law- 
ful emperor to abandon the proper object of the expedition] 
and attack Constantinople, with the view to restore the unioi 
of the Roman and Greek churches, which had separated oi 
account of certain differences in doctrine. The city was accord- 
ingly besieged with all their forces, and, mainlyj 
by means of the powerful fleet of the Venetians, 
was taken; and the lawful emperor was restore( 
to the throne. He being, however, the next year, by ai 



Constantinople 
taken. 



insurrection of the inhabitants, deprived of his throne anc 
put to death, the Crusaders again besieged the city, and tool 
it by storm (1204). 

16. Most of the dominions of the empire were then dividec 
between the French and Venetians, who appointed Baldwin,] 
Count of Flanders, emperor. He and his successors, calle( 
the Latin Emperors, continued to occupy th( 
throne till 1261, when the Greeks, who in th( 



Latin emperors. 



meanwhile had held Nice as their capital, again obtained pos- 
session of Constantinople, under their emperor Pal-se-ol'o-gus. 
This emperor expelled the Latins from the city; but som( 
few Latin principalities continued to exist within the limits 
of the empire until its final destruction. 

17. Meanwhile, another tremendous revolution had takei 
place in Avestern Asia, occasioned by an incursion of the 

* "Daily, for eight days, and barefooted, the Crusaders had walked in procession 
round Jerusalem; which done, a general assault was made by the whole army, 
Godfrey's tower rolled to the walls, and on Friday, the 15th of July, 1099. at three 
o'clock, on the very day, and the very hour of the Passion, Godfrey of Bouillon 
descended from his tower on the walls of Jerusalem. The city was taken, and a 
fearful massacre followed ; for the Crusaders, in their blind fury, not taking into 
nccount the distance of time, believed that in each infidel they slew in Jerusalem 
they put to death one of the executioners of Jesus Christ, "—ilfic/ieters History of 
France. 



The Basicrn Empire. ^00 

Mon'gols, ii Tiirtcir race who, in the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century, under the renowned chief Gen'ghis Khun, 
subdued a hirge part of China, overturned the 
flourishing kingdom of Kha-nism (now Khiva), 



Mongols. 



and conquered the greater part of Persia. Populous ten-i- 
tories, abounding in the noblest works of mankind, were 
made entirely desolate, so that the peaceful industry of cen- 
turies has been scarcely sufficient to repair the ravages of a 
few years. After the death of Genghis (1227), the Mongols 
passed into Syria and Asia Minor, pillaged Aleppo and Da- 
mascus, and destroyed the kingdom of Roum, or Iconium, 
the last Seljuk sultan seeking a refuge among the Greeks of 
Constantinople (1272). The Mongols subsequently carried 
their victorious arms into Europe, and devastated or con- 
quered many of its most fertile and populous countries. 

18. Soon after these events, and while the descendants of 
Pala3ologus still continued a feeble administration at Con- 
stantinople, there arose a power which was destined to cause 
the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire, and establish 
upon its ruins one which should rival it in extent, 
and far surpass it in the splendor of its conquests 



Ottomans. 



This was the Ottoman Turks, so called from the founder of 
the empire, Oth'man, or Os'man, who in 1299 invaded Asia 
Minor, and in a few years succeeded in establishing there a 
kingdom, the capital of which was fixed at Pru'sa, in Bithy- 
nia. This kingdom soon became one of the most flourishing 
states of the East. 

19. The remaining history of the Greek Empire, during a 
century and a half, is but the narrative of its contests witli 
the Ottomans, who successively wrested from it the fairest 
portions of its dominions. In the middle of the 
fourteenth century (1360), Am'u-rath, one of the 



successors of Othman, captured Adrianople, and made it liis 
capital. He afterward subdued Thrace and Mncedon, but 
fell at Cos-so'va, in Servia, where, however, he defeated an 



310 MedicBval History. 

iiiiiiieiise army of Christians, amoiiiiting, it is said, to 500,000 
men (138'J). His successor, liaj'a-zet, continued the tide of 
con({uest; and for ten years besieged Constantino- 
ple, but was called away to defend his own domin- 



Bajazet. 



ions against the celebrated chieftain Ti-mour', or Tam'er-lane, 
by whom he was defeated and taken prisoner (1402). 

20. This delayed the fall of the Greek Empire for some 
years; but Timour's empire having been dismembered, the 
.Turks resumed their encroachments, and, finally, 
under Mohammed II., after a siege of fifty-three 
days, took Constantinople by storm (May 29, 



Taking of 
ConstantinopI 



145o). Constantine (Pala?ologus), tlie last of the Eastern 
emperors, fell in the battle, and the inhabitants were either 
massacred or carried into slavery. This event was soon fol- 
lowed by the subjugation of all the remaining dominions of 
the empire, which thus, after an existence of 
1058 years, was brought to an end. The minute 
history of the dynasties and emperors which fol- 



History of the 
Eastern Ennpire 



lowed each other during this long period, presents probably 
llie most shocking and disgraceful narrative of imbecility, 
wickedness, and crime contained in any part of the annals of 
the world. 

Byzantine Civilization. 

21. In the preceding brief sketch, we have rapidly traced 
the most important revolutions which, during more than a 
thousand years, the Eastern Empire suffered from the suc- 
cessive incursions of the barbarous hordes that poured into 
it from the east and south, and finally broke it 
into pieces. We must now as rapidly sketch the 
leadins: features of the civilization of that lonff 



Eastern 
civilization. 



period. Though, during the greater ])art of the existence of 
the empire, nearly all the culture, whether of art, science, 
literature, or society, that could be found in the world, cen- 
tered in Constantinople, it was still not a living, progressive 



The Eastern Empire. 811 



civilization, such as tlie modern states of Euroi)e afterward 
attained, but ratlier a relic of past splendor, a feeble attempt 
to apply to the changed condition of things the faded glories 
of the ancient Greek world. We will here speak briefly of 
the church, literature, commerce, and art. 

22. The Church. The Greek Church, sometimes called the 
Greek Catholic or Eastern Church, was separated from the 
Western or Eoman Catholic Church in conse- 
quence of differences as to doctrine and belief 



Greek Church. 



which occurred during the fifth and sixth centuries. There 
were, also, claims to dignity and authority on the part of the 
emperor and patriarch of Constantinoiile — the head of the 
Greek Church — which the Bishops of Rome could not sanc- 
tion. The conflict between the two branches of 
the Christian Church, though continued for cen- 
turies, did not become a permanent schism until 



Church 
conflicts. 



the eleventh century; and, even down to the taking of Con- 
stantinople, there was an almost continuous effort on the 
part of the Roman head of the Church to reconcile the differ- 
ences. 

23. Literature. By the conquests of Alexander the Great 
and his successors, the use of the Greek languare became 
general in the East; and, consequently, tliis was 
the national language of the Greek Empire. 
Though essentially the language of the ancient 



Greek 
language. 



Greeks, many changes and corruptions had been introduced 
during the intervening centuries. The writings of the first 
five centuries were chiefly theological; but among 
their authors were many aljle and learned men. 



Writings. 



such as Cy'ril, bishop of Alexandria (died 444), and the two 
church historians, Socrates and Sozomen, of the fifth cen- 
tury. Among the most important works of this 
period were the famous treatises- the Code, Insti- 



tutes, and Pandects of Justinictn — containing a compilation 
of the Roman laws. These were prepared, by order of Jus- 



312 MedicB'bal History. 

tinian, by Tri-bo'nian, an eminent lawyer (died 545). To 

these must be added the historian Proco'pius, who was 

patronized by Justinian and Belisarius. 

24. To a later period belonged John of Damascus, the 

last of the Greek fathers, who wrote a treatise on the orthodox 
faith (730), and Syncel'lus, with other historical 
compilers; but there is little in the works of tiie 



Other 



'* early Byzantine writers," either as regards substance or 
style, to commend them to general attention. About the 
time of the Crusades there was a brief intellectual 
revival among the Greeks of Constantinople and 



Revival. 



Asia Minor, and a few writers of respectable talent appeared, 
such as Theophylact, who wrote a work on The Education of 
Princes, for the use of the Court of Constantinople. The 
most interesting literary character of this ^oeriod 
was the princess Anna Comnena (1083-1148), a 



Anna Comnena. 



lady of high culture and considerable genius. Slie was the 
daughter of the emperor Alexius Comnenus. Learned men 
continued to flourish in Constantinople till it was taken by 
the Turks. 

25. Commerce. Constantinople was a great emporium dur- 
ing the whole Byzantine period, its situation affording it 
—— I many natural advantages for extensive commerce, 
^°?a maT" ^^s harbor, the Golden Horn, capacious and well 

I protected, provided acccmmodation and shelter 
for ships of all sizes, and thus for many eenturies attracted 
the commerce of the whole civilized world. ** Whatever rude 
commodities were collected in the forests of Germany or 
Scythia, as far as tlie sources of the Tanais and the Bory- 
sthenes; wliatever was manufactured by the skill of Europe 
or Asia; the corn of Egypt, and the gems and spices of the 
furthest India, were brought by the varying winds to the port 
of Constantinople." 

26. The introduction of the silk-worm, in the reign of 
Justinian, gave a great impulse to both manufacturing and 



The Eastern Empire. 



813 



commercial industry.* Silk-worm eggs became an article of 
extensive trade, and mulberry-trees were culti- 
vated in many parts. The Peloponnesus received 



Silk. 



the name Morea from its extensive growth of these trees. 
The trade with India was of chief importance. 
The Persians obstructing the Euphrates valley, 



Indian trade. 



Western trade. 



styles, 



this trade was carried on through Egypt; but after Alex- 
andria had been taken by the Saracens, a route was opened, 
by way of the Greek settlements on the Black 
Sea and western Tartary, which continued to be 
employed for two centuries. An active trade was also carried 
on with the west — Spain and the republics of Italy. 

27. Byzantine Art, as distinct from the earlier 
dates from the reign of Justinian, during which 
it received a great impulse from the many works 
constructed under the direction of that monarch, 
especially the case in church architecture. The 
largest edifice of this kind constructed under 
Justinian was the church of St. Sophia (now 
the great mosque of Constantinople).! It is a t3^pe of the 
Byzantine stylo, the chief features of which is the free use of 
the column and the dome. This style stands 
between the classic or pagan and the western 
Gothic styles. Sculpture and painting were cul 



This was 



Church 
building. 



Sculpture and 
painting. 



tivated by the Byzantine Greeks, almost exclusively in con- 
nection with their system of church decoration. 

* Silk was at first brought from China, but of what and how it was produced 
was for many years a mystery. At last, notwithstanding the efforts of the emperor 
of China to prevent it, the eggs or cocoons of si'k-worms were brought to the Env 
peror Justinian by some missionaries, who, according to Procopius, concealed them 
in hollow sticks. 

t The original church »f St. Sophia (Divine Wisdom) was built by Constantino, 
but wa«! destroyed by fire in the reign of Justinian, who within six years caused a 
new cathedral to be constructed. This M-as partly thrown down by an earthquake, 
when it was again restored by the emperor. " In the thirty-sixth year of his reign 
Justinian celebrated the second dedication of a temple which remains, after twelve 
centuries, a stately monument of his fame."— (?i66on.. 



314 



Mediceval History, 



Pkincipal Greek Emperors. 



Name. Date of reign. 

Arcadius 395- 408 

Theodosius II 408- 450 

Marcian 450- 457 

Leo I. (Thracian) 457- 474 

Leo II. 474- 474 

Zeno 474- 491 

Anastasius 1 491- 518 

Justin 1 5lg- 527 

Justinian 1 527- 565 

Justin II 565- 578 

Three reigns 578- 610 

HeraeliusI 610-641 

Twelve reigns 641- 717 

Leo III 717- 741 

Constantine V 741- 775 

Nine reigns 775- 842 

Michael III 842- 867 

Basill 867- 886 

Leo VI 886- 911 



Constantine VII. 

Five reigns .. 

Basil II 

Constantine IX. 

Four reigns . . . 



911- 959 
959- 976 
976-1025 
1025-1028 
1028-1042 



Nam e. Date of reign . 
Constantine X 1042-1054 

Seven reigns 1054-1081 

Alexius I. (Comnenus) 1081-1118 

Joannes II. " 1118-1143 

Manuel I. " 1143-1181 

Six reigns 1181-1204 

Latin Emperors. 

Baldwin 1 1204-1205 

Henry III 1206-1216 

Three reigns 1216-1237 

Baldwin II 1237-1261 

Greek Emperors of Nicz:a. 

Theodorus 1 1206-1222 

Joannes III 1222-1255 

Two reigns 1255-1261 

Greek Emperors Restored. 

Michael VIII. (Palseologus) .... 1261-1282 

AndronicusIL " .... 1282-1328 

Five reigns " .... 1828-1448 

Constantine XIII. " .... 1448-1453 



Summary of Principal Events and Dates. 



The Eastern Empire founded under Arcadius 395 

Italy invaded by the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric 493 

Italy wrested from the Goths by Belisarius 539 

Italy invaded by the Loml ards 568 

Conquest of Syria by the Saracens 638 

Alexandria, in Egypt, taken bj^ the Saracens 640 

Persian monarchy overturned by the Saracens 651 

The kingdom of Bulgaria founded 680 

The Russians make an attack on Constantinople 865 

Bagdad taken by the Seljuk Turks 1055 

Roum, or Iconium, founded by the Seljuks 1075 

Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks 1076 

Nice, the capital of Roum, taken by the Crusaders 1097 

Constantinople taken by the Crusaders 1204 

Invasion of the East by Genghis Khan « 1215-1227 

Kingdom of Roum destroyed by the Mongols 1272 

Invasion of Asia Minor by the Ottoman Turks 1299 

Adrianople taken by the Ottomans under Amurath 1360 

The Christians defeated by Amurath at Cassova 1390 

Bajazet, the Turkish emperor, taken prisoner by Timour the Tartar 1402 

Constantinople taken by the Turks, End of the Greek Empire 1453 



No. 10. 




The Franks and the Normans, 315 



CHAPTER III. 

The CoNQUEiiiNG Races. 



SECTION I. 

The FiiAiN'Ks k^b the Norma:n"s. 

1. We now come to the history of western and central 
Europe from the fall of the Western Empire (476) to the 
general establishment of the modern European 
states in the ninth and tenth centuries. This 



Dark ages. 



period of invasion, war, and revolution, carried on by the bar- 
baric liordes in their restless migrations, has been aptly called 
the Dark Ages; for ignorance, depravity, and 
superstition almost uiuversally characterized the 
people and tlieir rulers. Prominent among the 



Barbarous 
tribes. 



])arbarous tribes of this period were the Franks, the Normans, 
the Saxons, and tlie Saracens. 

2. The Franks* (i^ree7?z<:'M) Avere a confederation of Ger- 
man tribes living in the country near the lower ])art of the 

Geographical Stxtdy, Map No. X. 
How far did the empire of Charlemagne extend from east to west? What river 
was its eastern boundary? How far did it extend toward tlie south? — Aiis. To 
southern Italj'. How far did it extend toward the north? — Ans. To the Bahic Sea. 
What country was east of the Rhone River? In the southwestern part?— J.hs. Was- 
conia, afterward cahed Gascony. What people dwelt on the southern bank of the 
Upper Danube? What people occupied both banks of the Weser? What province 
near the head- waters of the Meuse and Rhone? What province south of the Loire 
River? What province bordered on the English Channel? What was the situation 
of Pans? Tolosa (Toulouse)? Lugdimum (Lyons)? Constantia (Constance) ? Pavia? 
Verdun? Strasburg? Verona? Anglia (England)? 

* " The Franks were not a people, but a confederation, which varied in its mem- 
bers as it fluctuated in its influence, but which must have been powerful at the 



316 MedicBval History. 

Rhine, who in the third century successfully opposed the 
Romans, committing great devastations through- 
out Gaul and Spain. In the fifth century (486), 



Clo'vis, chief of a tribe known as the Sa'lian Franks, invaded 
Gaul, and having victoriously overrun the greater 
part of it, founded therein a new monarchy, the 



Clovis. 



capital of which he fixed at Lu-te'tia, or Paris.* He chose 
for his queen Clo-til'da, a Christian princess, and niece of the 
king of Burgundy, a country situated east of the Rhone; and 
through her influence he embraced Christianity. f He gained 
several great victories over the Al-e-man'ni — a powerful con- 
federation of German tribes — and defeated the Burgundians 

close of the fourth century. At this period the Franks had indisputably large pos- 
sessions in the empire. Under the name of Franks, Germans of every race com- 
posed the b3st troops of the imperial armies and the body-guard of the emperor. 
Floating between Germany and the empire, they generally declared against the 
other barbarians whose irruptions into Gaul succeeded theirs. They opposed, 
though unsuccessfully, tlie great invasion of the Burgundians, Suevi, and Vandals, 
in 406, and many of them fought against Attila. Seated in the north of France, in 
the northwest corner of Europe, the Franks held their ground against the pagan 
Saxons, the latest swarm from Germany; against the Arian Visigoths; and, finally, 
against the Saracens; all three equally hostile to the divinity of Jesus Christ. 
Therefore, it is not without reason that the French monarchs have been styled the 
eldest sons of the Church."'— il/(c/ietefs History of France. 

The Franks gave name to Ynmce. {Francia), as also to Franconia; just as the 
Alemanni imposed their name upon Germany (French, V Allemagne). 

" The words ' frank and free,' usually grouped together, are in fact the same in 
origin and meaning. The name Frank carries the sense of boldness, defiance, free- 
dom."— 6'. W. Kitchin. 

* Lutetia was the name given by the Romans to the collection of huts built of 
mud (lutum), and inhabited by a Gallic tribe called the Parisii, from whom it was 
afterward called Paris. 

t ' Clovis's destiny was principally determined by his adopting the Christian 
faith. The chief agent in his conversion was his queen, Clotilda, daughter [niece] of 
Gundobald, king of Burgundy, his neighbor and ally. By her affectionate exhorta- 
tions, the mind of her husband was disposed to Christianity, though he long hesi- 
tated to embrace a religion which imposed many restrictions. At length, in a battle 
with the Alemanni, Clovis, hard pressed, was induced to vow. that if he should 
obtain a victory, which seemed extremely doubtful, he would become r. Christian. 
The king of the Alemanni was slain, his army discomfited, and the acquisition of 
his dominions greatly augmented the power of tlie Franks. After this conquest, 
Clovis adopted tlie Christian faith, according to his vow, and was baptized in the 
Cathedral at Rheims. where it has been ever since the custom to crown and conse- 
crate the monarchs of France."— -Scoff. 



Tlie Franks and the Normans, 



317 



Divisions. 



Prankish 
nnonarchy. 



jind the Visigoths, the hitter of whom were deprived of nearly- 
all their possessions in Gaul. 

3. After tlie death of Clovis (511), his extensive domin- 
ions were divided among his four sons; but the permanent 
division did not take place till some time after- 
ward (567). Then were formed three kingdoms: 
1. Aus-tra'sia, east of the Rhine; 2. Neus'tria, north of the 
Loire; and 3. Burgundy, which had been annexed to the 
Frankish dominions by conquest (534); and to 
this was added a part of Aquitaine (ak'ive-tam), 
a kingdom lying between the Loire (hvar) and the 
Pyrenees. These were afterward finally united under a single 
monarch by tlie conquest of Neustria by the Austrasians (687). 
In the history of France, Clovis and his descend- 
ants are called the Mer-o-vin'gi-ans, from Mer-o- 
VEe'us, one of their ancestors. This dynasty lasted a 
more than 250 years (486-752). 

4. The immediate successors of Clovis were noted for their 
constant dissensions, their vices, and the dreadful crimes 
which they perpetrated to obtain possession of 
each other's dominions. Some were great war- 
riors, like Clovis himself; but, for more than a 



Merovingians. 



ittle 



Descendants 
of Clovis. 



century previous to the termination of the dynasty, they were 
but nominally kings [called Faineants {fa-na-omj) — Do-noth- 
ings], all the ro3'al power being exercised by the great minis- 
ters, styled Mayors of the Palace. This high 
office was made hereditary by Pep'in d-IIer-is- 
lal', who held it from 687 to 714. He was suc- 



Pepin 
d'Heristal. 



ceeded by the famous Charles Mar-tel' (the Hammer), who, 
when the Saracens, after completing the conquest 
of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, threatening not 



Charles Martel. 



only the subjugation of France but of all Europe, met them 
near Tours (toor), and inflicted upon therii so severe a defeat 
that they were completely checked in their long career of 
conquest (732). 



318 Medlcemd History, 

5. Pepin the Short,* the successor of Charles Martel, hav- 
ing rendered important aid in repelling the Lombards from 
Rome, was, by the authority of Pope Zach'ary, 
placed upon the throne of the Franks, and the 
weak Chil'de-ric, the last of the Merovingians, 



Pepin the 
Short. 



was formally deposed (752). Thus commenced the Carlo- 
viugian dynasty. This period is also noted for the termina- 
tion of the rule of the Eastern emperors in Italy, 
and the commencement of the temporal dominion 
of the Roman Pontiff, whose government of the 



Temporal 

power of the 

Pope, 



territories previously included within the Exarchate of Ra- 
venna was acknowledged and sustained by Pepin. 

6. At the death of Pepin (768), his two sons Oar'lo-man 
and Charles succeeded, but the former dying, Charles [after- 
ward known as Charlemagne [shar-le-maUn') — 
Charles the Great] became the sole monarch of 



Charlemagne. 



the Franks, and the ruler over not only France but a large 
part of Germany. lie made war upon the Lombards in Italy, 
and having taken Pavia, their capital (774), put an end to 
this monarcliy, which had lasted about two centuries. He 
also, after several years of severe war, reduced the Saxons on 
the lower Weser (we'zer), and invading Spain, which was then 
in the possession of the Saracens, conquered all that part lying 
north of the E'bro (778). On his return tlirough the Pyre- 
nees, the rearguard of his army was surprised by the Basques, 
at Ron-ces-val'les, and defeated, its brave commander Ro'land, 
the favorite nephew of Charlemagne, being slain. This battle 
gave rise to many romantic stories, and formed the subject of 
the most popular epic poem of the Middle Ages, the famous 
*^ Song of Roland." 

7. Charlemagne also gained some victories over the Avars, 
in Pannonia, and other eastern races; and in 800, while on a 
visit to Italy, the Pope (Leo III.) crowned him Emperor of 

* So called from his very low stature, being:, it is said, only four and a half feet 
Jiigh, while his sou Charlemagne was seven feet in height. 



The Fraiiks and the Normans. 819 

the Eomans, thus reviving the Empire of the West, the 
capital of which Charlemagne fixed at Aix-la- 
Chapelle {dkes-lah-sha-peV). This monarch was 
not only distinguished for his military talents, 



Emperor of the 
West. 



but was passionately fond of learning, receiving instruction 
from Alcuin {al'ktvin), a Saxon, the most accom- 
plished scholar of the age. He also showed the 



greatness as well as beneficence of his character by the many 
useful enterprises which he i)lanned for the benefit of his 
people, and by his efforts to dispel the ignorance which uni- 
versally prevailed. His death occurred in 814.* 

8. Louis, his son and successor, called le Deb-On-naire (the 
Easy), was of too mild and unwarlike a disposition to reign 
over an empire so extensive, and composed of such 
heterogeneous parts; and his own sons formed 
conspiracies against him. After his death, in 
840, three divisions were formed, one for each of his sons; 
but they soon quarreled, and the great battle of Fon-te- 
naille' was fought (841), in which, it is said, so many of the 
bravest generals and soldiers of the empire fell that it was 
afterward impossible to repel the incursions of 
the Normans, who for many years continued 



Louis 
le Debonnaire. 



Normans. 



their piratical attacks. Two years after this battle (843), a 
treaty was made by the contending parties (at 
Verdun), according to which a new distribution 
of the imperial dominions was made among the 



Treaty 
of Verdun. 



three sons — Louis receiving Germany; Charles, France; and 

* " A strong sympathy for intellectual excellence was the leading characteristic 
of Charlemagne, and this undoubtedly biased him in the chief political error of his 
conduct, that of encouraging the power and pretensions of the hierarchy. But per- 
haps his greatest eulogy is written in the disgrace of succeeding times, and the 
miseries of Europe. He stands alone like a beacon upon a waste or a rock in the 
broad ocean. His scepter was as the bow of Ulysses, Avhich could not be drawn by 
any weaker hand. In the dark ages of European history, the reign of Charlemagne 
affords a solitary resting-place between two long periods of turbulence and 
ignominy, deriving the advantages of contrast both from that of the preceding 
dynasty and of a posterity for whom he had formed an empire which they were 
unworthy and unequal to maintain."— Haiia/n's Europe during the Middle Ages 



320 



MedicEval History. 



Lothaire, Italy. Charles the Fat, a son of Louis, obtained 
possession of the whole in 884; but three years afterward it 

— — 1 was finally separated, Germany alone retaining the 

I imperial title and dignity. The other divisions 
were France, Italy, and Burgundy or Aries («r/),* this latter 




kingdom having regained its independence during the weak 
reigns of some of the preceding Carlovingian princes. 

The Normans. 

9. The Normans were a bold, active, and enterprising race 
from Scandinavia and Denmark, and were sometimes called 



* So named because its dukes, or rulers, for some time made the city of Aries 
their capital. 



The Franks and the Normans. 321 

Norsemen or Northmen.* They commenced their ravages 
in France during the reign of Charlemagne; but 
under his successors, taking advantage of the 



Ravages, 



weakness of the government, these Vikings or sea-kings, as 
they were also called, sailed up the navigable rivers, pillaged 
and burnt the great towns, and retired dragging away many 
of the inhabitants with them. During the reign of an imbe- 
cile king, named Charles the Simple, they ascended the Seine 
(sane), and besieged Paris; whereupon the king, 
unable to make any resistance, finally ceded to 



Normandy. 



their ruler, Duke Kollo, a large district in the north of France, 
afterward called Normandy (912). f The same 
active race about this time crossed the Atlantic, 
and established colonies in the Faroe Islands, 



Other 
settlements. 



Iceland, and Greenland; and in the next century are supposed 
to have visited the eastern shore of North America. 

10. The Dukes of Normandy, including Eollo and his 
successors, held their lands, according to the 
feudal system, as vassals of the king of the 



Norman dukes. 



Franks. Rollo married a daughter of the Frankish king, 



* " The northern part of Europe, peopled by a race closely akin to the Low 
Dutch, and speaking another dialect of the common Teutonic speech, now began 
to send forth swarms of pirates over all the seas of Europe, who from pirates often 
grew into conqueror-s. They were still heathens; and their incursions, both in 
Bi-itain and on the Continent, must have been a scourge almost as frightful as the 
settlement of the English had been to the original Britons." — Freeman^ s History 
of the Norvian Conquest. 

+ " When the new duke was to receive investiture of Normandy from Charles, 
his pride was startled at the form whch required him, in acknowledgment of the 
favor bestowed on him, to kneel to his liege lord, and kiss his foot. ' My knee shall 
never bend to mortal,' said the haughty Norman; ' and I will be, on no account, 
persuaded to kiss the foot of any one whatever.' The French counselors present 
suggested that this difficulty might be surmounted by Rollo, or Robert, appointing 
a deputy to kiss, in his name, the foot of Charles. Accordingly, the duke com- 
manded a common soldier to perform the ceremony in his stead. The man showed 
the small value he attached to the ceremony, by the careless and disrespectful man- 
ner in which he performed it. Instead of kneeling to salute the royal foot, he 
caught it up and performed the ceremony by lifting it to his mouth. In this awk- 
ward operation the rude Norman well-nigh overturned the simple king, throne and 
aU, and exposed him to the laughter of all around,"— >S'coft 



322 MedicBval History. 

and embraced Christianity; and his followers also intermar- 
ried with the people among whom they had settled. The 
new Norman race that resulted from this union, 
retaining the daring and adventurous spirit of 
the old Scandinavian warriors combined with the 



New Norman 
race. 



higher civilization of the French, played a great part in the 
subsequent history of Europe. 



SECTION 11. 
The Saxons, 



11. The Saxons (German Sachsen, from sahs, a knife), like 
the Franks, were a confederation of Teutonic or Low German 
tribes. As early as the third century they made 
their appearance in northern Germany, from 



Saxons. 



which they passed southward and invaded the Eoman Empire. 

At a later period, in the fifth century, they commenced their 
incursions into Gaul and Britain.* After the 
abandonment of the latter province by the Ro- 



incursions. 



mans, hordes of these barbarous tribes, associated with An'gles 
and Jutes from Denmark, rushed with irresistible force upon 

* Britain had been in the possession of the Romans nearly four centuries. The 
latter found the Britons a fierce, hardy, courageous race of warriors; they left 
them so effeminated by the corrupt civilization of Rome that they were unable to 
defend themselves from the warlike barbarians of the north; and their appeals for 
aid to the Roman governers were so frequent and urgent that they were called the 
"groans of the Britons." The ancient religion of the Britons was called Druidism; 
rmd the Druids, or priests, were not only ministers of rehgion. but judges, physi- 
cians, and teachers. They worshiped the sun and moon ; and were accustomed to 
live in caverns or amid the gloom of forests. There are many remains of this 
curious religion, the most remarkable of which is Stonehenge (Saxon, raised 
stones) on Salisbury Plain. This singular monument originally was a circle {crom- 
lech) of thirty stones, fourteen feet high, surmounted with large flat stones. Such 
circles were called " doom rings," and each contained in the center an altar 
{dolmen), on which victims were sacrificed. Besides these there were " rocking- 
gtones" {loggans),—yast masses of granite or sandstone, sometimes weighing more 
than 500 tons, so nicely poised on another stone as to be moved by the least towh. 
(See eut, page 323.) 



The Saxons. 



B2B 



the island, and completed the conquest of the whole, except 
the western portion, now called Wales, into which the rem- 
nant of the British population retired. 

12. The Britons, being abandoned by their Roman con- 
querors, were subject to the constant and harassing attacks of 
the Scots and Picts of the northern districts; and 
in their distress adopted the desperate measure 



Britons. 



of inviting the Saxon sea-rovers to come to their aid (449). 
The Saxons soon drove back the northern invaders, but the 




Stonehenge. (See note, page 322 ) 

unfortunate inhabitants found themselves at the mercy of 
these pirates, who, with the assistance of con- 
stantly increasing hordes of Saxons, Angles, and 
Jutes, soon possessed themselves of most of the 



Saxon 
conquest. 



country, driving the Britons into Gaul or the western fast- 
nesses of the island. The northwestern part of France was 
called Brittany, because it afforded a refuge to the Britons.* 

* " The whole southern part of the island, except Wales and Cornwall, had 
totally changed its inhabitants, language, customs, and political institutions. The 
Britons, under the Roman dominion, had made such advances toward arts and 
civil manners, that they had built twentj'-eight considerable cities within their 
province, besides a great number of villages and country-seats; but the fierce con- 
querors by whom they were now subdued, threw everything back into ancient 
barbarity; and those few natives who were not either massacred or expelled their 
habitations, were reduced to the most abject slavery." — Hume''s History of Eng- 
land. 



3^4 MedicBvat History. 



13. Thus were formed during the fifth and sixth cen- 
turies, by the inroads of these people, seven kingdoms in the 
central and southern parts of the island of Brit- 
ain, named collectively the Saxon llep'tar-chy, 



Heptarchy. 



consisting of : 1. Kent ; 2. Sussex ; 3. Wessex; 4. Essex ; 5. 
Northumbria; 6. EastAnglia; 7. Mercia. (See Map No. XL) 
Various wars arose among these states, and many changes 
occurred in their respective territories, the final result of 

which was, that Wessex absorbed all the others; 

and in 827, its king Egbert became the acknowl- 



England. 



edged monarch of the whole country, to which he gave the 
name of England {Engla-land, i.e., Land of the Angles). 



SECTION IIL 

The Saraceks. 



14. Sar'a-cens {Eastern People) was the name given to 
that fierce and active race who, proceeding from Arabia in 
the seventh century, rapidly overran a consider- 
able part of western Asia and the whole of 



Saracens. 



northern Africa, and made a conquest of the kingdom of 
the Visigoths in Spain; but were stopped in their victorious 
career by the valor of the Franks, who in southern France 
turned the tide of Saracenic invasion. 

15. They were the followers of Mo-ham'med, or Mali'o- 
met, an Arabian, born at Mecca in 570.* He professed to be 

* The Arabians, up to the time of Mohammed, with the exception of the inhabi- 
tants of the cities, were divided into many small tribes, each having its leader, 
called Sheik or Emir. They dwelt in the deserts, wandering from place to place, 
and gaining their subsistence in the service of the merchants, by carrying goods 
across the deserts on the backs of camels, but more often they depended upon the 
plunder which they took from hostile tribes. They were skilled in the use of the 
bow, the lance, and the cimeter; and were wonderfully adroit riders. In religion 
they were worshipers of fire or the stars. 



The Saracens, 825 



a prophet and the bearer of a new revelation from God, and 
began to preach at Mecca,* but his doctrines 
were received with such opposition that he was 



Mohammed. 



compelled to flee from the city (622). This event, called 
in Arabic the He-gi'ra, is the epoch which the 
Mohammedans employ in their chronology. In 



Hegira. 



Medina, where he found a refuge, his doctrines were received 
with more favor, and after a time gained general credence. 

16. At the first, while his converts were few, he preached 
a religion of love and peace, particularly exhorting his dis- 
ciples to lead abstemious and unselfish lives; 
but as his precepts began to be generally ac- 



Doctrines. 



cepted, and when he found himself at the head of a large 
body of warlike followers, a great change came over him. He 
became ambitious and bigoted, persuading himself that the 
power he had acquired was the gift of the Almighty, to 
enable him to promulgate his doctrines by the 
sword, t Thus, in seven years after his flight, he 
was enabled to return to Mecca with a consider- 



Retum to 
Mecca. 



able army of roving Arabs, whom he controlled by promises 
of plunder in this world and everlasting bliss in the next. 

* " Mahomet, or more properly Mohammed, was born at Mecca, four years after 
the death of Justin ian, and two months after the defeat of the Abyssinians, whose 
victory would have introduced into the Caaba the religion of the Christians. In his 
early infancy he was deprived of his father, his mother, and his grandfather; his 
uncles were strong and numerous; and, in the division of the inheritance, the 
orphan's share was reduced to five camels and an Ethiopian man-servant. At 
home and abroad, in peace and war, Abu Taleb, the most respectable of his uncles, 
was the guide and guardian of his youth. In his twenty-fifth year he entered into 
the service of Cadijah, a rich and noble widow of Mecca, who soon rewarded his 
fidelity with the gift of her hand and fortune. By this alliance, the son of Abdallah 
was restored to the station of his ancestors; and the judicious matron was content 
with his domestic virtues, till, in the fortieth year of his age, he assumed the title 
of a prophet, and proclaimed the religion of the Koran."— (ribbon's Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire. 

t " Even the miracles of Moses and Jesus have been treated with unbelief . I, 
therefore, the last of the prophets, am sent with the sword. Let those who pro- 
mulgate my faith enter into no argument nor discussion, but slay all who refuse 
obedience to the law. Whoever fights for the true faith, whether he fall or con- 
quer, will assuredly receive a glorious reward."— lfa?ii/esfo of Mohammed. 



326 Mediceval History. 

Soon afterward the Arabians generally embraced his doc- 
trines, accepted his sacred mission, and gave their assent to 
the cardinal principle of his creed, '* There is but one God, 
and Mohammed is his prophet. " * 

17. Mohammed began the propagation of his faith by 
sending emissaries to the courts of the neighboring provinces 
to invite them to embrace the new faith, and 
become Moslejns, true believers. Some of these 



First overtures. 



were treated with indifference; but at the court of Syria his 
proposals were received with disdain, and his embassy was 
slain. This action caused the first great battle fought by the 
Saracens, and in it they were victorious. Khaled, 
afterward so renowned under his title of the 



Khaled. 



'* Sword of God," first became prominent here. 

18. Mohammed had scarcely more than commenced his 

successful career of conquest, when he was stopped by death 
(G32), being succeeded by Abu-Bekr {ah'hoo- 
Mkr'), styled the First Caliph {successor). He 



First Caliph. 



left a series of writings which he said he had received directly 
from heaven; and these were collected and compiled by his 
successor, forming the sacred volume, or Bible, of 
the Mohammedans. This book is called by them 



the Koran (Arabic Alcoran, The Book); and the Mohamme- 
dan religion, Islam — submission to the will of God. 

19. Abu-Bekr prosecuted the conquest of Syria; and his 
general Khaled defeated the emperor Heraclius, and besieged 
Damascus. Under O'mar, the next caliph, Da- 
mascus and Jerusalem were taken (G35 and 637), 



Conquests. 



and Syria totally subdued. Egypt also was subjugated, and 



* " Mahomet inculcated the belief that there is, was. and ever will be, one only 
God, the creator of all things; who is single, immutable, omniscient, omnipotent, 
all-merciful, and eternal. The unity of God was specifically and strongly urged, in 
contradistinction to the Trinity of the Christians. It was designated, in the profes- 
sion of faith, by raising one finger, and exclaiming, ' There is no God but God,'— to 
which was added, ' Mahomet is the prophet of God.' ''''— Irving'' s Mahomet and 
His Successors. 



The Saracens. 327 



the Persians were defeated in a great battle, at Ca-de'sia, on 
the Tigris. Omar, it is said, during his reign of ten years 
reduced 36,000 cities and vilhigcs, demolished 4000 Chris- 
tian churches, and erected 1500 Mohammedan temples, or 
mosques. He was succeeded by Oth'man, who completed the 
conquest of Persia and other eastern countries, extended his 
dominion in Africa, and published a new edition of the Koran. 
Cyprus and Rhodes were also taken; and the Saracens at the 
latter place took possession of the famous brazen Co-los'sus,* 
or statue of Phoe'bus, the god of the sun. The murder of 
Othman made Ali (ah'Ie) caliph, who is considered the bravest 
and most virtuous of the successors of Mohammed (655). 

20. During the reign of Ali a great schism occurred which 
divided the Mohammedans into two sects, called the Sun'- 
nites and the Shi'ites, the former acknowledging 
the authority of all the caliphs, while the latter 



Schism, 



reject all but Ali, whom they regard as the equal of Mo- 
hammed. The Shiites also reject the Suii'nah, a book of 
traditions concerning the Prophet, which the Sunnites, or 
orthodox Mohammedans, receive as sacred. During the 
reign of Ali, Mo-a-wi'yah usurped the govern- 
ment of Syria, and by the murder of Ali became 



Ommiyades. 



caliph. He was the first of the dynasty called the Om-7ni- 
ya'des, which lasted tul 752. 

21. Moawiyah fixed his capital at Damascus, and, by his 
A-mir-al-ma (captain at sea; hence our word admiral) and 
his lieutenant Ak'bar, continued the conquest of 
northern Africa, founding south of Tunis the 



Moawiyah. 



famous city of Kairwan (kare-ivalm'). It was the army of 
this caliph that besieged Constantinople, and was 
repulsed by means of the Greek fire, so efiRciently 
employed by its defenders (668-675). About 



Defeat of the 
Saracens. 



forty years afterward (717), Constantinople was again attacked 
by an army of Saracens, said to number 120,000 nien; but. 



* See page 148. 



828 MedicBval History. 



after a siege of thirteen months, was relieved by the Bul- 
garians, who fell upon the Saracens and defeated them with 
immense slaughter. 

22. Carthage was taken by the Saracens in 698, and utterly 
destroyed, after which they encountered no opposition in 
Africa except from the native Berber tribes, 
whom they finally subdued (709) and converted. 
,'^ From the union of the Arabic and Berber races. 



Conquest of 
Africa. 



sprung the Moors, so noted in Saracenic history. The con- 
quest of Africa was immediately followed by that of Spain; 
for Mu'sa, the Saracen general, dispatched his lieutenant 
Ta'rik across the strait of Gibraltar (Gib-el- 
Tarik — mountain of Tarik) with an army which 



Spain. 



defeated Roderick,* the last of the Visigothic kings, and thus 
destroyed their monarchy in Spain, after an existence of more 
than two centuries (711). f A remnant of the Gothic nation, 
however, escaped to the highlands among the Asturian moun- 
tains, where they succeeded in maintaining their indepen- 
dence for many centuries. 

23. Crossing the Pyrenees, the victorious Saracens were 
still pressing on in their career of conquest when they were 
defeated, in a battle that lasted seven days, by the 
Franks under Charles Martel, who by his valor 



Defeats. 



and skill probably rescued Europe from the Mohammedan 
yoke (732). His grandson Charlemagne more than fifty years 
afterward drove them beyond the Ebro, and thus confined 
them to their dominions in Spain. The Ommiyade dynasty 
of caliphs was, in the middle of the eighth century (752), 

* It is said that the Saracens were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Gothic 
noble, in revenge for an injury inflicted upon him by King Roderick. 

t " Amidst the general disorder, Roderick started from his car, and mounted 
Orelia, the fleetest of his steeds; but he escaped from a soldier's death to perish 
more ignobly in the waters of the Guadalquiver. His diadem, his robes, and his 
courser were found on the bank; but as the body of the Gothic prince was lost in 
the waves, the pride and ignorance of the Caliph must have been gratified with 
some meaner head, which was exposed in triumph before the palace of Damascus." 
— Gibbon, 



I 



TJie Sar'icens. 329 



succeeded by the Ab-bas'i-des, descendants of Ab'bas, the uncle 
of Mohammed; but one of the Ommiyades, escap- 
ing to Spain, founded an independent caliphate 
at Cor'do-va, which lasted 250 years, and was 



Caliphate of 
Cordova. 



one of the largest and most splendid centers of commerce, 
literature, and the arts in the world. 

24. Al Mansur (mcm-soor^), the second of the Abbasides, 
removed the capital to the Tigris, founding there the city of 
Bagdad, which was built out of the ruins of 
Seleucia and Ctesiphon (762). The most cele- 



Bagdad. 



brated of the caliphs of Bagdad was Ha'roun al Rasch'id 
(Aaron the Just), made familiar both to young and old by 
the tales of the ''Arabian Nights."* During 
this reign (786-808), and several succeeding 
reigns, literature and science, particularly as- 



Haroun 
ai Raschid. 



tronomy, were carried to a very high degree of perfection 
both at Cordova and Bagdad, while nearly all Europe was 
slumbering in the intellectual night of the dark ages. 

25. After the reign of Haroun al Raschid, the Saracen 
Empire became divided by the rebellion and usurpation of 
the provincial governors, so that, in the beginning 
of the tenth century, there were no less than 



seven caliphates, all of whom acknowledged the caliph of 
Bagdad only as the successor of Mohammed, denying to him 
any temporal authority over their respective dominions. Of 
these independent kingdoms the most distinguished was that 
of the Fat'i-mites, or Mo'ez-zites. The founder 
of this dynasty was an African Saracen, who, with 



the emirs of Fez, claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter 
of the Prophet. This chief commenced his career in 908, and 
soon became master of the Mohammedan states of Fez and 

* Haroun al Raschid was contemporaneous with the great Frankish emperor 
Charlemagne, and exchanged courtesies with him. He sent him various presents, 
among which was a curious clock that struck the hours ; and it is said he offered 
him the keys of Jerusalem, the Christian monarch being supposed to regard such a 
possession with the utmost reverence. 



380 MedicBval History, 

Kairwan, which he miited into one kingdom (010), which 
was afterward extended by the conquest of Sicily and several 
parts of Italy. One of the Fatimite rulers conquered Egypt 
and built Cairo, which he made his capital (9G0); and subse- 
quently Palestine was conquered (9G9). The dynasty of the 
Fatimites continued in power till 1171, when its last repre- 
sentative was conquered by Sal'a-din. 

26. In the eleventh century (1055), Bagdad was taken by 
the Seljuks; but these fierce barbarians, being believers in Mo- 
hammed, acknowledged the caliphs of Bagdad as 
their superiors. The power, however, of the latter 



Bagdad taken. 



had been greatly diminished; and their dominions scarcely 
extended beyond the walls of the city. At length, in 1258, 
during the reign of the grandson of Genghis Khan, Bagdad 
was taken and sacked by the Mongols* and the 
caliphate extinguished, after it had existed nearly 
500 yeai's. This event is generally regarded as 



End of the 
caliphate. 



the termination of the Saracen Empire, although, centuries 
before, its various parts had been but nominally connected. 



SECTION IV. 

Saracenic Civilization". 

27. The rapid and extensive conquests of the Saracens 
made them acquainted with the greater part of the civilized 
world, and as they were a highh^ intellectual and 
enterprising race, they soon learned to make their 
knowledge available. Tiiis was first shown in 



Comnnercial 
activity. 



their commercial activity. Planting trading stations along 
the African coast, they soon controlled the whole maritime 
commerce of the Mediterranean. They restored 
the ancient caravan routes, constructed highways, 



Routes of travel. 



opened wells along all the roads leading to every great center, 
and established caravansaries at convenient points. Bagdad, 



Saracenic Cimlization. 331 

which became the center of the caravan routes, acquired a splen- 
dor and opulence that might almost vie with ancient Babylon. 
28. Their trade extended to the far east as well as the 
west. There were caravan routes that led into Siberia, and 
their traders visited India and even China. They 
brought gold and negro slaves from the western 



Trade, 



coast of Africa; and, sailing along the east coast, spread their 
commerce to Madagascar. They exchanged their 
linen, silk, and cotton manufactures for the furs 
of the Russians; and obtained the rich products 



Articles of 
exchange. 



of Independent Tartary and Persia in exchange for their 
tapestries and silk stuffs, the cloths of Yemen, the dates and 
flour of Sana, the balsams of Mecca, and the cutlery and 
textile fabrics of Damascus (damasks). 

29. In Spain the Saracenic dominion was equally wealthy 
and magnificent. Of this Cordova was the capital, renowned 
for its splendid mosque and sumptuous palace, i 
It was the seat of extensive manufactures of silk, '^in'spSir^^ 

leather, silver-work, and other articles. It con- I 

tained 600 mosques, nearly 1000 baths, and 16,000 looms for 
silk-weaving. The old silver-mines of Spain were 
worked anew by tlie Moors, and yielded large 



Mines. 



treasures. In weaving and dyeing they showed a wonderful 
skill. Granada and other cities also enjoyed great prosperity. 
30. In learning, the Saracens became equally advanced. 
They founded universities and schools, built observatories, 
and instituted public libraries and museums. 
They collected the works of the ancient classic 



Learning. 



writers, and translated many of them into Arabic, and cul- 
tivated with astonishing success almost every 
branch of science, particularly chemistry, as- 



Science. 



tronomy, and mathematics. They also introduced the arith- 
metical notation (Arabic) which we now use. The Saracenic 
architecture is a special order, of which the famous palace of 
Alhambra, in Granada, is a type. 



332 



MedicBval History. 



Chronological Synopsis of Events. 



A.D. 


Eastern Empire. 


Western Europe, 


Saracens. 


441 


Invasion by the Huns. 






449 




Saxon invasion of Britain. 




486 




The Franks imder Clovis 
invade Gaul. 




493 


Italy invaded by the Ostro- 
goths. 






511 




Death of Clovis. 




568 


Lombards invade Italy. 






569 






Birth of Mohammed. 


622 


Defeat of the Persians by 
Heraclius. 


Merovingians in France. 


The Hegira. 


650 






Conquest of Persia. 


680 


Bulgaria founded. 






687 




Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of 
the Palace. 










711 




End of the Visigothic king- 
dom in Spain. 


Conquest of Spain. 


732 






Defeated by Charles 
Martel. 


752 




End of the Merovingian 
dynasty. 




762 






Bagdad founded. 


768 




Accession of Charlemagne 




786 






Accession of Haroun al 
Raschid. 


800 




Charlemagne emperor of 
the West. 




808 






Death of Haroun. 


843 




Empire of Charlemagne 
divided. 




865 


Russia.n invasion. — Con- 
stantinople attacked. 






884 




Empire united imder 
Charles the Fat. 










887 




Final division of the em- 




910 




pire. 


Commencement of the 
Fatimite dynasty. 


912 




Normans settle in France. 




987 




End of the Carlovingians. 




1055 






Bagdad taken by the 
Seljuks. 


1076 


Jerusalem taken by the 
Seljuks. 






1097 


Nice taken by the Crusa- 
ders. 






1204 


Constantinople taken by 
the Crusaders. 












1258 






Bagdad taken byGenghis 
Khan. — End of the 














Saracen Empu-e. 


1453 


End of the Eastern Em- 








pire. 







No. 11 




Saxon Period. 333 



GHAPTER IV. 
England in the Middle Ages. 



SECTION I. 
Saxon Period. 



1. The Saxon period of the history of England includes 
that of the Heptarchy, about three and a half centuries pre- 
ceding the consolidation of the Saxon kingdoms 
by Egbert. To this period of British history 



Saxon period. 



belong the stories related of King Arthur, a famous British 
champion who became renowned for his many victories over 
the Saxon invaders; also the partial conversion of 
the Saxons to Christianity, which was effected 



by St. Au'gus-tine and several monks, commissioned by Pope 
Gregory the Great to perform this work (597). The bar- 
barous and ferocious manners of the age, although softened, 
were by no means removed, by the partial Christianizatioq. 
thus effected. 

2. In the same period, the Danes commenced their inva- 
sions. These people were Norsemen who had come from 
Norway to Denmark, and occupied the lands left 
uninhabited by the emigration of the Angles and 



Jutes to Britain. The Danes for a long time continued to 
harass the kingdom of England, in the reigns of both Egbert 

Geographical Study, Map No. XI. 
What was the situation of: Kent? Sussex? Wessex? Essex? East Anglia? 
Mercia? Northumbria? Strathclyde? North Wales? West Wales? Senlac? 
Deal? Stonehenge? Glastonbury? Wareham? Stamford? Leicester? Derby? Not 
tingham? Lincoln? York? Leeds? Stamford Bridge? Scarborough? The country of 
thePicts? Anglesey? Isle of Wight? River Thames? Humber? Tees? Tyne? Sever©? 
Wye? Firth of Forth? Tay? Clyde? Solway Firth? 



834 MedicBval History. 

and his successors, the Saxon kings of England, who, except 
during the reigns of Canute the Dane and his two successors, 
held the throne a little over two centuries (827-1066). 

3. Alfred the Great. The most eminent of these Saxon 
kings was Alfred the G-reat, who was the most illustrious 
monarch of his age, and one of the wisest and 
most virtuous kings that ever reigned. Though 



Reign of Alfred. 



at one time entirely overwhelmed by the Danes, and re- 
duced to such an extremity that he was obliged to seek 
safety in an obscure part of the country, in the disguise of a 
peasant, he at last, by his fortitude and address, was enabled 
to defeat his enemies, and to regain his throne. The Danes 
being expelled, he restored tranquillity to the country, and 
endeavored, by judicious measures, to promote the prosperity 
and civilization of the people. He founded the University of 
Oxford, improved the laws of the kingdom, and established 
schools for the education of the people. His reign lasted 
thirty years (871-901).* 

4. Daring the next century, the Danes continued their 
incursions, until the English monarch was compelled to sur- 
render one half of his dominions to the Danish 
conqueror Can-ute'; and soon afterward the latter 



Canute. 



obtained full possession of the throne (1017), which he and 
his two successors held, until the Saxon line was 
again restored in the person of Edward, called 
the Confessor, on account of his studious habits 



Edward 
the Confessor, 



and pious disposition. This monarch was canonized by the 

* " Alfred is the most perfect character in history. He is a singular instance of 
a prince who has become a hero of romance, who, as such, has had countless 
imaginary exploits attributed to him, but to whose character romance has done no 
more than justice, and who appears in exactly the same light in history and in 
fable. No other man on record has ever so thoroughly united all the virtues both 
of the ruler and of the private man. In no other man on record were so many 
virtues disfigured by so little alloy. A saint without superstition, a scholar without 
ostentation, a warrior all of whose wars were fought in the defense of his country, a 
conqueror whose laurels were never stained by cruelty, a prince never cast down 
by adversity, never lifted up to insolence in the day of triumph, there is no other 
uame in history to compare with his,"— Free wan's Norman Conquest. 



Saxon Period. BBS 



Pope, and very much revered by the people, who imputed to 
him the power of curing the scrofula by the touch of his 
hand. Hence this disease was called the "king's evil;" and 
for seven centuries those afflicted with it were, at times, pre- 
sented to the king to be cured in this way. 

5. Edward dying without heirs, the crown was conferred 
by the clergy and nobles uj^on Harold, son of Earl Godwin, 
the most powerful nobleman of the time, whose 
daughter Edward had married. Harold was also. 



Harold. 



through his grandmother, a descendant of Sweyn (swane), 
the Danish king. His right to the throne was, however, dis- 
puted by his brother Tos'tig, who, with the aid 
of the kings of Scotland and Norway, was en- 



Tostig. 



abled to raise a large army; but he was defeated by the Eng- 
lish forces under Harold, after a severe battle fought near the 
Der'went River, in the northern part of England (September 
25, 1066). 

6. Three days after this battle, a more powerful competi- 
tor for the throne landed on the southeastern shore of Eng- 
land, with a largo and finely equipped army. 
This was William, Duke of Normandy, to whom 
Edward had bequeathed the throne, and whose 



Norman 
conquest. 



claim was sanctioned by the Pope; while Harold, who, it was 
said, had Sacredly promised not to dispute William's claim, 
was viewed by many as guilty of usurpation and perjury. 
Harold, notwithstanding his recent conflict with the Nor- 
wegians, marched with all the forces he could collect to 
oppose the Normans. The battle, which was long and bloody, 
was fought near Hastings,* and resulted in the entire defeat 
of the Saxons, Harold himself being slain (October 14, 1066). f 

* On the site of the town now called Battle, in the southeastern part of England. 
It was fought on the hill of Senlac. (See Map No. XI.) 

+ "Toward the evening, while still unweariedly sustaining his army with his 
voice and hand, Harold was struck with an arrow through the left eye into the 
brain, and fell dead upon the field. His two brothers. Gurth and T^eofwin. were 
also slain, with nearly all the nobles and knights in the battle. The old Anglo- 



336 Mediceval History, 

This ended the Saxon dynasty, and gave the control of the 
kingdom to Willi'iT^i, who, two months afterward, was formally 
crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey (December 
25, 1066). 

Anglo-Saxon Civilization. 

7. The great council of the nation was called the Witen- 
agenwte (meeting of the witan, or wise men), and was com- 
posed of representatives of the nobles and clergy. 
The churls, or common people, had no voice in 



Witenagemote. 



Administration 
of justice. 



it. The kings were chosen by it, and no law could be enacted 
without its consent. Justice was administered in the shire- 
mote, or county court, from which an appeal could be made 
to the king. The finding of a verdict was assigned to twelve 
thanes (lowest order of nobles), who thus bore 
some resemblance to a modern jury. The accused 
cleared himself by his own oath or those of others, 
called compurgators, who swore to his innocence. Without 
these, he was subjected to the ordeal (great judgment); that 
is, he was compelled to thrust his arm into boiling water, 
hold a piece of red-hot iron in his hand, or walk over burning 
plowshares; and if at the end of three days no signs of injury 
appeared upon him, his innocence was deemed to be estab- 
lished. 

8. The dwellings of the Anglo-Saxons were constructed of 
wood, having, instead of a cliimney, an aperture in the roof. 
The windows were of lattice-work, but some- 
times were covered with a linen blind; in the 



Dwellings. 



houses of the rich they were often glazed. The floors were 
covered with rushes, and the walls often hung with rich 
tapestry, embroidered with gold or colored thread, the women 

Saxon heroism, worthy of a better fate, set in that dark eclipse; the battle-ax no 
longer availed against the Norman spear. Certain it is, however, that there was 
neither rout no** flight, so great was the despairing energy with which the English 
fought. Eing Harold's army was exterminated but not vanquished, and England lay 
paralyzed at the foot of the conqueror."— Boscoe's Lives of the Kings of England. 



Saxoii Period. 337 



of this period being skilled in needlework. The furniture 
was very rude and simple, stools, benches, and 
settees being used in place of chairs; and these 



Furniture. 



were made of wood, often curiously carved. Many of the 
vessels employed in eating and drinking were of silver and 
gold beautifully wrought. Drinking-horns supplied the place 
of glass vessels. 

9. The Anglo-Saxons were hospitable, and fond of feast- 
ing and merriment; and at their banquets, the harp was 
passed around, that each, in turn, might contrib- 
ute by his skill to the entertainment. Their 



Social customs. 



amusements were active and exciting. Among the higher 
classes, hunting and hawking were favorite sports; while the 
churl delighted in bear-baiting, in the feasts of jugglers and 
tumblers, and in the songs of the gleeman, or minstrel. Back- 
gammon, chess, and dice were also resorted to for more quiet 
pastime. The ladies were much occupied in spinning; hence 
the name spinster came to be applied to a young unmarried 
woman. 

10. Little was done after Alfred's reign to encourage 
learning and science, the irruptions of the Danes preventing 
any progressive efforts to cultivate the arts of 
peace. There were no means of diffusing knowl- 
edge. The monasteries were almost the only 



Learning and 
science. 



schools; and in these a very few persons received instruction 
in Greek, Latin, theology, and astronomy; also in some of 
the fine arts, the monks being often skilled in painting, 
music, and sculpture. They also spent much of their time 
in copying and illuminating books on vellum or parchment, 
which, being executed with so much labor, were very costly, a 
considerable fortune being requisite to obtain a few volumes. 
11. The foreign commerce of England during this period 

was considerable, London being the great em- i — 

porium of the nation. Wool was the chief article 



of export, and was received back from the continent in fabrics 



338 Medice^al History, 

of various kinds. Mints were established in some of the 
cities and towns, and many of the Anglo-Saxon coins still 
preserved exhibit remarkable skill. 



SECTION II. 
The Norman Period. 



12. William I, surnamed the Conqueror, Avas a descendant 
of the famous Duke Rollo, to whom Charles the Simple had 
ceded Normandy about 150 years previously. He 
was not only a brave and skillful general, but an 



Character 



able statesman; and, after subduing all the Anglo-Saxon leaders 
who opposed his rule, he, by severe but judicious regulations, 
firmly established the government, and effectually j^rotected 
the country from foreign invasions. The Saxon population 
was, however, reduced to a condition of abject bondage to 
the great Norman barons, among whom most of 
the lands were divided as a reward for their ser- 



Measures. 



vices, according to the usages of the feudal system. The laws of 
Edward the Confessor were not, however, abolished; and 
some of the Saxon nobles sat in council with the Norman 
counts. 

13. William instituted the custom of ringing the curfew- 
hell in the evening, as a signal that the people should ex- 
-] tinguish their lamps and fires, either to prevent 
conflagrations or secret assemblies of those who 



Chief events. 



were hostile to his government.* One of his most useful acts 

* "William, knowing how ill the English stood aflfected to him, resolved to take 
all possible measures to screen himself from their resentment; for that pui*pose 
he took two precautions which were equally insupportable to them. The first was 
to take away their arms, the second to forbid them any lights in their houses after 
eight o'clock, at which hour a bell was rung to warn them to put out their fire and 
candle, under the penalty of a great fine for every offense."— i^opm's History of 
England. 



Norman Period. 



380 



Wcas to cause tlie compilation of the Domesday Booh, which 
was a register of all the estates in the kingdom. Hunting 
was his favorite amusement; and in order to make a ncAV 
forest near his residence, he laid waste a tract of country 




Geographical Study. 
What is the situation of : 'E.^GT.A.^T)'! Wales? Scotland? Ireland? London? 
Dover? Hastings? Portsmouth? Canterbury? Cornwall? York? Carlisle? Ot- 
ierbum? Flodden Field ? Edinburerh? Glasgow? Inverness? Dublin? St. Albans? 
Bamet? Wakefield? Towton? Isle of Wight? 



840 Mediceval History. 

extending thirty miles, driving out the inhabitants, demolish- 
ing houses and even churches, but making no compensation 
for the injury. To kill game in any of the forests was made 
a crime of greater enormity than murder.* He 
died during an invasion of France, in the twenty- 



third year of his reign (1087). 

14. William II., surnamed Rufus, the Red, from the color 
of his hair, succeeded to the throne of England, by the will 
of his father, while his elder brother Robert assumed the 
government of Normandy. William inherited 
the courage and much of the ability of his father. 



Character. 



but was more cruel and unprincipled. His reign was much 
disturbed by quarrels with his brothers Robert and Henry, 
which caused him to invade Normandy. He also waged war 
with Malcolm, king of Scotland. During this 
period the First Crusade occurred; and Robert, 



Events. 



wishing to join it, mortgaged to William his duchy of Nor- 
mandy (1095), the latter raising the money to pay for it by 
forced levies upon his subjects, even compelling the convents 
to melt their plate in order to furnish their quota. After a 
reign of thirteen years, he was shot while hunting 
in the New Forest (1100). The people viewed 



Death. 



this as a just retribution; for where the Conqueror had de- 
stroyed the homes of the Saxons, his son prematurely and 
miserably perished. \ 

* " ' stark he was,' says the English chronicler, ' to men that withstood him. So 
harsh and cruel was he that none dared resist his will. Earls that did aught against 
his bidding he cast into bonds, bishops he stripped of their bishoprics, abbots of their 
abbacies. He spared not his own brother; first he was in the land, but the king 
cast him into bondage. If a man would live and hold his lands, need it were that 
he followed the king's will.' But stern as he was, he gave peace to the land. Even 
amid the sufferings which necessarily sprang from the circumstances of the Con- 
quest itself, from the erection of castles, or the inclosure of forests, or the exac- 
tions which built up the great Hoard at Winchester, Englishmen were imable to 
forget ' the good peace he made in the land, so that a man might fare over his realm 
with a bosom full of gold.' ''—Green's History of the English People. 

t " It was almost night, when a poor charcoal-burner, passing through the New 
Forest with his cart, came upon the solitary body of a dead man, shot with an 
arrow in the breast, and still bleeding. He got it into his cart. It was the body of 



JSlormaii Period. 341 

15. Henry I. (surntimed Beauclerh, the Sdiolar), the 
younger brotlier of Williiini II., succeeded him; Robert, the 
elder brother, being absent in the Iloly Land. 
The latter, on his return, again received Nor- 



Robert. 



mandy; but some time afterward, war arising between the 
brothers, Robert was made prisoner, sent to England, and 
confined in a castle in Wales till his death. The 
government of Henry was characterized by seve- 



Government. 



rity; and so strict and impartial was he in administering the 
laws, that he was styled the ''Lion of Justice." He married 
Matilda, daughter of the king of Scotland, and 
niece of Edgar Atheling, a prince of the old 



Saxon line. Matilda was much beloved by the people, who 
called her Maud the Good. Henry's private life was, how- 
ever, very immoral; and he was so deceitful and 
treaclierous that even his greatest favorites dis- 



Private life. 



trusted him. The latter part of his life was saddened by the 
loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from 
Normandy; after which event, it is said, Henry was never 
seen to smile. 

16. Stephen, a nephew of Henry, succeeded him, although 
it had been his cherished wish that his daughter Matilda 
should have the throne. This princess, whose 
first husband was the emperor of Germany, and 



Matilda. 



who afterward married Geoffrey Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of 
Anjou, raised an army, and having defeated Stephen and 
made him a prisoner, was declared queen of England (114:1). 
She, however, soon disgusted all her English friends and sup- 
porters by her despotic and arrogant behavior; and Stephen 
was enabled to regain the throne, Matilda being compelled 
to flee. 

the king. Shaken and tumbled, with its red beard all whitened -with lime and clotted 
with blood, it was driven in the cart by the charcoal-burner nest day to "Winchester 
Cathedral, where it was received and buried. By whose hand the Red King really 
iell, and whether that hand dispatched the arrow to his breast by accident or de- 
sign, is known only to God."— i>iofcens. 



94'i MedicBval Hldorl). 

17. Some years after this, Henry Plantagenet, her son, 
made another effort to dethrone Stephen, but was finally 
reconciled to the king, being adopted by him as 



^"!^' I his son and successor; soon after which, on the 
death of Stephen, he became king (1154). During the reign 
of Stephen, on account of the weakness of the government, 
the country suifered greatly from the violence 
and rapacity of the feudal barons, each of whom 
occupied a fortified castle, from which, at the 



Condition of 
Ihe country, 



head of his band of mercenary ruffians, he sallied forth day 
and night to plunder and oppress the inhabitants. This 
reign terminates the Norman period. 

Norman Civilization.— The Fettdai* System. 

18. The Norman conquest of England wrought many great 
changes in the social as well as the political condition of the 
people. Among these the establishment of the 
Feudal System was the most important. This 



Feudal system. 



was a system by which, during the period from the ninth to 
the thirteenth century, social and political relations, includ- 
ing the rights of landed property, were regulated in nearly 
all the countries of Europe. A feudal proprietor was one 
who held his lands from another, on condition of certain ser- 
vices which he, as a vassal, was bound to perform for the 
other, as his suzerain, or superior. 

19. This peculiar relation was established for the pur- 
pose of obtaining and preserving military strength; and was 
admirably adapted to that end. Thus, when the 
king needed an army he summoned his barons, 
who in like manner called upon their vassals. 



Object of the 
system. 



and they at once made a similar demand upon their depen- 
dents; so that, with wonderful promptitude, the whole force 
of the nation was brought into the field. With 
the exception of the duty of military service to 



Vassals. 



their superiors, the vassals of a king practically were invested 



Norman Period. 



m 



with sovereign power within their own dominions, having 
vassals in various degrees beneath them; and living in their 
fortitied castles, often by means of pillage, while the peasan- 
try were bound as serfs, or slaves, to the soil. 

20. These feudal castles soon became a striking feature 
in England and other parts of western Europe, 
their whole appearance indicating that the only 



Feudal castles. 



objects of their construction were strength and security. They 
were surrounded by walls _^ 

often more than twelve feet 
high, within which was a lofty 
tower called the donjon, or 
keep, whose massive walls, 
pierced with small windows 
or loop-holes, defied the fierc- 
est assault. Here the baron 
lived, and here was stored the 
property of the castle. Under 
it was a gloomy dungeon, in 
which those who had offended a Feudal castle. 

its haughty master were thrust, and often left to starve. The 
ruins of some of these castles still exist. 

21. The feudal nobles and gentlemen fought on horseback, 
and were protected by a close-fitting armor of steel, often 
ornamented with gold and silver. Their princi- 
pal weapons of offense were long lances, with 
which they rode fiercely against each other; and 




Modes of 
combat. 



clubs, maces, or swords for hand-to-hand conflicts, when their 
lances were broken, or when the combatants became un- 
horsed. The common soldiers fought on foot, were unpro- 
vided with protective armor, and used bows and arrows — 
either long-bows or cross-bows. The Normans were skilled 
in the use of every species of arms, but particularly in the 
cross-bow; and, after the Norman invasion, the English 
became the most skillful archers m the world. 



344 



MedicBval History. 



22. Tlie most numerous class in England at this time 
were the Saxon churls, or, as called by the Normans, villaifis. 

These were farmers, and were obliged to place 
themselves under the protection of some noble, 

as otherwise they might be seized as robbers. They were 

bound to reside on 

the lands which they 

held from their lords, 

unless permitted to 

leave them. Next 

below these were the 

serfs, who were in all 

respects bondsmen, 

i beinff at- 

I tached to 

the soil, and subject 

to the will of their 

masters. The num- 
ber of these regis- 
tered in Domesday 

Book was 25,000. 

23. The dress of 
the Normans was, in 
many respects, pecu- 
culiar. A short cloak, 
often richly furred 
and ornamented with 
gold lace, worn over 

•1 Innap rJnnhlof voonli 1- The Donjon; 2. Chapel; 3. Stables; 4. Inner Bal- 
a loose UOUOILL l eacn- ^^j^ (bailey, or court); 5. Outer Ballium; 6. Barba- 
in o- liji If wnv flnwn flip <^^"i ''• Mount, supposed to be the court-hill, or 
ing naii vva^^ UOWn Uie tribunal, and also the place where justice was 
leg, formed the most executed; 8. soldiers' Lodgings. 

conspicuous portion of a gentleman's costume. 
The shoes had very long pointed toes, sometimes 




A Norman Castle. 



Costume. 



twisted in a very curious manner, and occasionally fastened 
by gold or silver ckains to the knees. Long hose, fastened to 



Norman Period. 845 



the doublet by strings, called poi7its, and a velvet bonnet, 
completed the costume. The Norman ladies wore a loose 
wide-sleeved robe reaching to the ground, and covering a 
kirtle or under-gown of silk. Other modes of costume were 
peculiar to various characters. Thus the mmstrel was dis- 
tinguished by his harp strung on his shoulder, 
a plate of silver on his arm, and a chain around 



his neck bearing the tuning-key; the fool, or jester, by his 
cap and bells, and his party-colored dress; the palmer, er 
pilgrim, by his sandals, the scallop-shells border- 
ing his hat, and his iron-shod staff. The Saxon 
serf was clothed in uu tanned hide, sandals of 



Dress of the 
serf. 



hog-skin, and leather hose, and wore a collar of brass en- 
graved with his master's name. 

24. Learning at this period was almost exclusively con- 
fined to the cloister, the monks and priests being the only 
scholars. Every monastery had its writing- 
room, where the copying of books was constantly 



Learning. 



carried on by the monks. The most noted among the English 
writers of this time were William of Malmsbury, Geoffrey of 
Monmouth, and Henry of Huntingdon. These were the au- 
thors of several interesting chronicles. 

Chivalry or Knighthood. 

25. Chivalry or knighthood, like feudalism, was an insti- 
tution peculiai' to this age, and exerted a powerful influence 
upon the social customs of the Normans. While 
the feudal system constituted the basis of the 



political system both of England and France at this time, 
chivalry controlled the moral and social character of the 
people. Though pertaining to the general history of Europe, 
we give a sketch of it here, because of its prominence among 
the Normans, both in Normandy and in the conquered Anglo- 
Saxon kingdom. 



346 



MedicBi)al History. 



26. It was a singular combination of religion, military 
valor, and gallantry; and for several centuries continued 
to exercise a powerful influence upon the man- 
ners, customs, and opinions of all classes. Al- 



Development. 



Training for 
kniglithood. 



though its origin can be faintly discerned in the institutions 
and practices of the German and 
Gothic nations, its full develop- 
ment was not reached till the 
eleventh or twelfth century, 
being rapidly matured by the 
Crusades, from which it received 
a strong religious character. 
Those destined for knighthood 
received, from their 
earliest years, a pe- 
culiar training. Tlie 
first degree was that of "page 
(called sometimes child or var- 
iety-, after the age of fourteen, 
the page might be made an 
ef^quire, and was allowed to bear 
arms. He was then kept in con- 
stant service, waiting upon the 
master and mistress of the castle, 
and acquiring habits of perfect 
obedience and courtesy. Every 
care was taken to impress in- 
delibly upon his mind a love of 
chivalry; that is, a devotion to feats of arms in behalf of the 
weak and oppressed, or in vindication of religion, and of the 
honor and virtue of the female sex.* 

* " The young man, the esquire, who aspired to the title of knight, was first 
stripped of his clothes and placed in a bath, which was symbolical of purification. 
On leaving the bath he was clothed in a white tunic, symbolical of purity ; a red 
robe, symbolical of the blood he was bound to shed in the service of the faith ; and 
a black close-fitting coat, of the death which awaited him as well as all men. Thus 




A Knight in Complete Armor. 



Norman Period. 347 

27. By means of this training, he was prepared to receive 
his golden spurs, and to take the vows of a hniglit. The 
candidate for this honor was obliged, the night 
before receiving it, to hold his vigil; that is, he 
kept silent watch within some gloomy chapel 



Mode of 
admission. 



over the arms which he was about to assume. The chief of 
these was a lance, besides which he had a two-handed sword, 
the "dagger of mercy," and sometimes a battle-ax or mace. 
He was clad from head to foot in armor, consisting of plates 
of metal riveted together, and worn over a dress of soft 
leather. His helmet bore a crest, ornamented by favors 
bestowed by the lady of his knightly devotion, and on his tri- 
angular shield was a coat of arms. When the sword and 
spurs were bound upon him, he was struck on the cheek or 
shoulder, this being the last personal affront which he was to 
receive unavenged. He then took a solemn oath to protect 
the distressed, maintain right against might, and never, by 
word or deed, to disgrace himself as a knight or a Christian.* 

purified and clothed, the candidate observed for four-and-twenty hours a strict fast. 
When evening came he entered the church and there passed the night in prayer. 
Next daj^ his first act was confession, after which the priest gave him communion; 
and then he attended a mass of the Holy Spirit and listened to a sermon touching 
the duties of kniglits. The sermon over, the candidate advanced to the altar with 
the knight's sword hanging fi'om his neck. This the priest took off, blessed, and 
replaced upon his neck. The candidate then went and knelt before the lord who 
was to arm him. . . . Then drew near knights and sometimes ladies to reclothe 
the candidate in all his new array. He was then called adiibbed (that is. adopted). 
The lord rose up, Avent to him and gave him three blows with the flat of the sword 
on the shoulder or nape of the neck, and sometimes a slap with the palm of the 
hand on the cheek, saying, 'In the name of God, St. Michael, and St. George, I make 
thee knight.' ''—GuizoVs History of Civilization. 

* " No man could approach the idea of chivalry or rank himself among gentle- 
men and men of honor who was not ready to contend, when occasion arose, against 
any odds, and thus to encounter death rather than yield one inch from his post. 
He must feel himself absolutely free from the stain of a single lie, or even of an 
equivocation. He must be ever ready to help the weak and the distressed, whether 
they be so by nature, as in the case of women and children, or by circumstances, as 
in the case of men overpowered by numbers. He must with his heart, and not with 
mere eye-service, obey God and the king, or even <=uch other authority as he volun- 
tarily pledged himself to obey. A knight who violated any of these conditions, 
even if he escaped detection at the hands of his fellows, felt himself degraded and 
untrue to the oath taken before God. and the obligation which he bad bound him- 
self to fulfill."— Ma/io^r/'s Social Life, etc. etc. 



348 



MedicBval History. 



28. The display of chivalry was not confined to the battle- 
field, but found a frequent occasion in the tournament or 
joust — the highest species of amusement of this 
period. This was a fierce personal contest held 



Tournament. 



in an inclosed space, called the lists, in galleries around 
which sat the nobles and ladies to witness the sport, the out- 
side being thronged with eager spectators from the lower 




Combat 



D 



Knight in the Lists.* 

orders. At the sound of the trumpet, the combatants, cov- 
ered with steel and known only by their emblazoned shields, 
dashed at full gallop from the opposite ends of 
the lists; and meeting in the center with a terrific 
shock, one or the other was generally unhorsed, their lances 
often being shivered to pieces, and the vanquished thrown 
bruised and bleeding to the ground. The victor was usually 

* The knight is here seen in his hauhcrk, or coat of mail. A sort of overcoat was 
sometimes worn over this in warm countries to mitigate the heat of the sun on 
metal armor. This was nade of cloth or silk stuff, embroidered in gold and 
silver. 



Norman Period. 349 



rewarded by^ receiving his horse and armor, and sometimes by 
the privilege of naming some lady, who, with the title of 
Queen of Love, presided over the remainder of the tourna- 
ment. In other cases, he received a scarf, ribbon, or other 
favor from the lady in whose honor the tournament was held.* 
29. These combats were not only used for sport, but were 
resorted to in order to discover the guilty; it being the pre- 
vailing belief that Providence would interpose, in 
all such cases, for the protection of the innocent. 
In this conviction, those who were charged with 



Judicial 
combat. 



crime Avere challenged by their accusers, and were compelled 
to abide the issue of a personal combat in the lists. This 
appeal of the Normans to the justice of Heaven closely 
resembled the ordeal of the Saxons; and upon it was based 
the practice of tlie duel in more modern times. 

30. The customs and practices of chivalry varied in differ- 
ent countries, being modified by the character and circum- 
stances of the people. Being a Christian institu- 
tion, it was a very general object to fight against 



Military orders. 



the infidel, and thus uphold, as was conceived, the cause of 
true religion. Hence, great military orders of knighthood 
were formed during the Crusades, or expeditions in protection 
of the Holy Land, of which we shall speak here- 
after. KnigM-errantry was the practice as- 



Knight-errantry, 



sumed by certain knights in wandering about in quest of 
persons in distress, the rescue of whom conferred special glory 
upon the champion, f 

* The tournament differed from the joust principallj^ in the greater number of 
the combatants. Both were held in the open air, the tournament lasting several 
days. Outside the lists were pitched the tents of the knights, decorated with their 
poats of arms, while immediately surrounding the lists, seats were arranged for 
Bpectators, who attended in large numbers. Special canopies of silk and other rich 
stuffs were erected for the ladies, who thronged to the spectacle arrayed in their 
costliest dresses. At the close of the performance the victorious knights were pub- 
iicly crowned by the ladies of their choice. 

t The knight-errant traveled about from tournament to tournament, everywhere 
receiving hospitable entertainment. Out of chivalry sprang the romance, in which 



350 



Mediceval History. 



SECTION III. 

The Plantagekets. 

31. Henry II., the first of the Phmtagenets,* had married 
Eleanor, duchess of Gaienne {glie-eii'), the divorced queen of 
Louis VII., king of France; and having inherited 
Anjou from 



Dominions. 



Acts. 



his father, and Maine and 
Normandy from liis moth- 
er, at his accession he be- 
came the ruler not only of 
England but of the greater 
part of France. His first 

acts were to 

reduce the re- 
fractory nobles to obedi- 
ence ; and, dispossessing 
them of their strongholds, 
to compel them to discon- 
tinue their lawless violence 
and pillage. His next ob- 
ject was to diminish the 
powers and privileges of 
the clergy, who were, by 
the institutions of William 
the Conqueror, amenable 
only to the ecclesiastical courts, by which, if found guilty, 
they were delivered up to the secular power for punishment. 

we find the deeds of such heroes as Arthur and Charlemagne related and em- 
be]lished. These were sung by the frouveres of Normandy, the troubadours of 
Provence, and the minnesingers of. Germany. (See page 434.) 

* Plantagenet means, in French, broom-plant; and was given to this family, it 
is said, because one of their ancestors had done penance by scourging himself with 
twigs of that plant. Henry being Dujte of Anjou, he and his successors, down 
to and including John, are called the Angevins. They possessed a large part of 
France. (See Map.) 




Dominions of the Angevins. 



The Fldntagenets. 351 

32. In this undertaking he met with determined opjiosi- 
tion from Thomas a Becket, a man of great talent and fear- 
less courage, who, holding the highest office in 
the Church (that of Archbishop of Can'ter- 
bu-ry), considered it his duty to defend the au- 



Thomas < 
Becket. 



thority and privileges of his order, notwithstanding he had 
been eleyated to this great dignity by the friendship and 
partiality of Henry II. At a grand council held at Claren- 
don (1164), the king presented sixteen propositions, called 
the '^Constitutions of Clarendon, one of which 
was that clergymen accused of any crime should 
be tried by the civil courts; while the others 



Constitutions of 
Clarendon. 



were designed to define and regulate the ecclesiastical au- 
thority, and make it subservient to the civil power. To these 
propositions Becket, by the request of the Pope, reluctantly 
gave his assent; but afterward, being charged with evading 
them, he was condemned by a council specially called by the 
king to pass judgment upon him. 

33. He then secretly departed from England, and took 
refuge with the king of France, by whom, as well as by the 
Pope, he was encouraged and sustained. Henry at last 
becoming reconciled to him, he returned to England and 
resumed his high office. But he again opposed the royal au- 
thority; and the king was at last provoked into exclaiming, 
''Is there no one of my subjects who will rid me 
of this insolent priest?" Four knights, constru- 
ing this as a command, immediately proceeded 



Murder of 
Becket. 



to the residence of the prelate, and, pursuing him into the 
cathedral, barbarously slew him before the altar (1170). 

34. Henry was thrown into the greatest consternation on 
hearing of this event. He expressed the deepest sorrow for 

the words he had hastily uttered, and evinced i ■ 

the sincerity of his repentance by acts of the penan^ce. 
severest penance, consenting to go as a pilgrim 



to the tomb of the murdered prelate, now canonized as a 



3o2 MedicBval History. 

saint and martyr, and for miles of the way walked barefoot 
over the flinty road, marking his steps with blood. Inde- 
pendently of its atrocity, nothing could have been more dis- 
astrous to the king's cause than the murder of 
Becket; for the Church party gained more by 
the death of their champion than all his best 



Effect of 
Becket's death 



efforts could have won for them if he had lived, talented and 
determined as he was; and Henry only obtained pardon from 
the Roman pontiff on condition that he would submit entirely 
to the wishes and injunctions of the holy See. 

36. One of the most important events of this reign was 
the conquest of Ireland, which Henry completed in 1172. 
Ireland, anciently called Hibernia, was peopled 
by a race similar to the Britons, but little is 



Ireland. . 



known of them before the fourth century.* Each province 
had its separate king, but was dependent upon the monarch 
who held his court at Tara.f In the fifth century the people 
were converted to Christianity, chiefly through the efforts of 
the renowned St. Patrick. From the sixth to 
the twelfth century, Ireland became famous for 



History. 



its progress in literature and art, and sent forth many learned 
men and missionaries from the monasteries which had been 
established. J For three centuries it was much harassed by 

* " Many years before Christ, a race of men inhabited Ireland, exactly identical 
■with its present population, yet very superior to it in point of material well-being; 
a people acquainted with the use of the precious metals, with the manufacture of 
fine tissues, fond of music and song, enjoying its literature and books; often dis- 
turbed, it is true, by feuds and contentions, but, on the whole, living happily imder 
the patriarchal rule of the clan ^y?.iem..'''—Thehaud''s Irish Races. 

t "The ancient Hall or Court of Tara, in which, for so many centuries, the Tri- 
ennial Councils of the nation had been held, saw for the last time (a.d. 554) her 
kings and nobles assembled within its precincts. Some fugitive criminal, who had 
fled for siinctuary to the monastery of St. Ruan, having been dragged forcibly from 
thence 'o Tara, and there put to death, the holy abbot and his monks cried aloud 
again-t the sacrilegious violation; and pronounced a curse upon its walls. 'From 
that day,' says the annalist, no king ever sat again at Tara.' "— ilibore's History 
of Ireland. 

t " In order to convey to the reader any adequate notion of the apostolical 
labors of that crowd of learned missionaries whom Ireland sent forth in the course 



Tlte FlautageiieU. 353 

the Northmen or Danes; but in 1014 the latter were utterly 
defeated in a great battle fought at Olon'tarf, near Dublin. 

36. Some years before the death of Becket, Henry ob- 
tained permission of tlie Pope to subdue the island; but it 
was not until 1169 that an actual invasion was 
made. One of the five subordinate kings having 
been expelled from his province, and having 



Conquest of 
Ireland. 



taken refuge in England, succeeded in enlisting a force from 
the Anglo-Norman nobles and adventurers, with which he 
regained his kingdom (1170). The English then so rapidly 
prosecuted the conquest of the country, that the next year 
Henry went there, and, having received the submission of 
most of the native chiefs, committed the government of the 
island to a viceroy whom he appointed. 

37. The last sixteen years of Henry's life were embittered 
by family dissensions, his three oldest sons combining with 
Louis, king of France, to deprive him of his 
throne. At the same time his French dominions 



Family troubles. 



were threatened by a revolt, and the northern part of Eng- 
land was invaded by the king of Scotland. Henry, however, 
triumphed over all his enemies. But these troubles were no 
sooner pacified than similar family discords broke out, his 
sons being encouraged in their disobedience and unnatural 
hostility by Queen Eleanor, their mother, who had become 

of this [the sixth] century to all parts of Europe, it would be necessary to trans- 
port him to the scenes of their respective missions; to point out the difficulties 
they had to encounter, and the admirable patience and courafre with which they 
surmounted them ; to show how inestimable was the service they rendered, during 
that dark period, by keeping the dying embers of learning awake, and how grate- 
fully their names are enshrined in the records of foreign lands, though but faintly, 
if at all, remembered in their own. It was, indeed, then, as it has been ever since, 
the peculiar fate of Ireland that, both in talent and in the fame that honorably re- 
wards it, her sons prospered far more triumphantly abroad than at home; for 
while, of the many who confined their labors to their native land, but few have left 
those remembrances behind which constitute fame, those who carried the light of 
their talent and zeal to other lands not only founded a lasting name for themselves, 
but made their country also a partaker of their renown, winning for her that noble 
title of the Island of the Holy and the Learned, which throughout the night that 
oyerhung all the rest of Europe she so long and proudly wore, "— il/oore. 



354 MedicBval History, 

enraged against the king for his licentiousness, and particu- 
larly on account of his attachment to Rosamond Clifford, 
styled in the ballads of the time the *^Fair Rosamond." 
Eleanor, attempting to flee the kingdom, was arrested and 
kept in close confinement. The king's eldest son, Henry, 
died of a fever; his second son, Geoffrey {jef're), was killed 
in a tournament in France; and Richard, the third son, with 
John, the fourth son, joined the king of France in a war 
against England, so that Henry was compelled to submit to 
a very humiliating treaty of peace. 

38. Henry's death occurred a short time afterward (1189).* 
He was, undoubtedly, a very able monarch, and did much to 
establish the royal authority in opposition to the 
violence of the feudal barons, and to the exorbi- 



tant claims and privileges of the clergy. He was a patron 
of learning and art, and many Gothic edifices of great splen- 
dor were erected during his reign. The simple arts of civi- 
lized life also made considerable progress during the same 
period. Henry was succeeded by Richard, who was after- 
ward styled, on account of his martial courage, Coeui' de Lion 
ijcyur dull le-onc/), the Lion-hearted. 

89. Richard I. This monarch, being ambitious of mili- 
tary glory, embarked in the Third Crusade, and gained several 
important victories in the Holy Land over the 
renowned Saladin. On his return he was arrested 



Military caree 



in Austria; and, by the order of Henry VL, emperor of 
Germany, whom he had offended in Palestine, was confined 

* "When the French ambassadors were ushered into his presence, sick and bed- 
ridden as he was, and he inquired the name of Richard's supporters (amnesty for 
whom was a condition of the treaty), the first name on the Ust was that of his be- 
loved John. On hearing his name he was seized with a sort of convulsive move- 
ment; he sat up in bed, and gazing around v/ith a searching and haggard look, he 
exclairued, ' Can it be true that John, my heart, the son of my choice, he whom I 
have doted on more tlian all the rest, and my love for whom has brought on me 
all my woes, has fallen away from me?' They replied that it was even so; that 
nothing could be more true. ' Well, then.' he said, falling back on his bed, and 
turning his face to the wall, 'henceforward let all go on as it may; I no. longer 
care for myself or for tTie world.' ""—Michelet, 



The Plaiitagenets. B55 

in a dungeon, until his subjects paid a large sum of money 
for his deliverance (1194). During his absence, Philip, king 
of France, had seduced John, Richard's brother, 
from his allegiance; and both had plotted for 
the destruction of Eichard, with the design of 



Philip and 
John. 



obtaining possession of his dominions; but this scheme was 
thwarted by the king's return. The rest of Richard's reign 
was occupied in contention with Philip; and after much petty 
and indecisive war, he was mortally wounded in an attack 
upon a castle in France, held by a rebellious vassal (1199). 

40. The character of this monarch is one of the most 
romantic to be found in history, and displays a love of adven- 
ture, a military daring, and a strength and skill 
in feats of arms, unsurpassed in ancient or modern 
times. His people, oppressed by the taxes which 



Character of 
Richard. 



were ruthlessly levied to carry out his useless projects, were 
yet proud of his fame, though he accomplished nothing for 
their benefit, nor advanced in any respect the prosperity of 
the country. He, indeed, spent but fourteen months in his 
kingdom during the ten years of his reign. 

41. John (Lachland)y the brother of Richard, succeeded 
him, with the consent of the people, although Arthur, 
Geoffrey's son, was the rightful heir. This young 
prince, having fallen into the power of his uncle. 



Prince Arthur. 



was imprisoned, and, it is said, cruelly murdered by him. 
Philip, king of France, summoned John, his vassal, as Duke 
of Normandy and Aquitaine, to answer for this offense before 
a court of peers; but he refused to obey the sum- 
mons, and was accordingly branded as a murder- 
er, and adjudged to lose nearly all his French 



Loss of French 
territory. 



territories, which in a few years Philip succeeded in conquer- 
ing, and annexed them to his own dominions. Hence John 
received the surname of Lackland. 

42. The Pope (Innocent III.) having caused Stephen 
Langton, a man of great talent and unblemished character. 



356 MedicBvai History. 

to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury, John refused to give 
his consent; whereupon Innocent phiced tlie kingdom under 
an interdict, in consequence of which the churches 
were closed, the dead were reiused Christian burial, 



and aril other religious offices ceased. The king, still resisting, 
was formally excommunicated by Pope Innocent, his people 
were absolved from their allegiance to him, and a solemn 
injunction was placed upon Philip of France to take posses- 
sion of the kingdom. John at last submitted, and solemnly 
surrendered his dominions to the Pope, promising to hold 
them as his obedient vassal, and to pay to him an annual tri- 
bute (1213). Philip, attempting to carry out his 
design of conquering England, sustained a great 



Defeat of Philip. 



disaster in the loss of his fleet, which was attacked by the 

English and destroyed. This was the first naval action of 

importance between the English and French. 

43. John's next contest was with the barons, who, under 

the leadership of Langton, determined to compel his assent 
to a series of propositions designed to diminish 
the royal prerogatives and secure the liberties of 
the subjects by established principles. This John 



Contest with 
the barons. 



steadily refused, until a large army had been raised by the 
barons, and the city of London taken; when he finally sub- 
mitted, and signed the famous Magna Charta (the Great 
Charter) at Eun-ny-mede' (June 15, 1215).* One of the 
most important articles of this instrument was 
that ^'no delay should take place in doing ]us- 



Magna Charta. 



tice to every one; and no freeman should be taken or im- 
prisoned, dispossessed of his free tenement, outlawed, or ban- 

* " This Holy Land of English liberty is about half way from Odiham to London, 
and it is a grassy plain, of about one hundred and sixty acres, on the south bank of 
the Thames, between Staines and Windsor.* Various derivations are given for the 
name; that of the antiquary Leland affirms it to have been so called from the 
Saxon word Bnne, or council, and to mean the Council Meadow, having been used 
in the old Saxon times as a place of assembly. No column or memorial marks the 
spot where the primary triumph of the English constitution was achieved."— 
Creasy's Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, 



Tlie Plantagenets. 857 

ished, U7iless hy the legal judgment of his peers.''' This 
famous charter, although granted to the nobles only, pro- 
tected the rights of all, and is justly regarded as the palladium 
of English liberty.* 

44. John attempted -afterward to resist the execution of 
this instrument, and levied an army of foreign mercenaries, 
by means of which he perpetrated the most atro- 
cious cruelties, and compelled the authors and 
supporters of Magna Charta to flee the country. 



John s 
resistance. 



In the midst of the troubles which this excited, his death 
fortunately occurred, and thus saved the people 
from the disaster and misery of a prolonged civil 
war (1216). The character of John was despi- 



Death and 
character. 



cable; cruelty, treachery, and cowardice being its prominent 

* " How is it possible that at least a third of the provisions of the Charter should 
have related to promises and guaranties made in behalf of the people, if the aris- 
tocracy had only aimed at obtaining that which would benefit themselves ? We 
have only to read the Great Charter in order to be convinced that the rights of all 
three orders of the nation (clergy, nobles, and common people) are equally re- 
spected and promoted."— Guizof. 

The following is a paragraph in Magna Charta, as written; 

The same in Roman letters. 
Nullus liber homo capiatur, vel imprisonetur, aut dissaisiatur, aut utlagetur, 
autexuletur, aut aliquo modo destruatur; nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum 
mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae. 

Translation. 
No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or outlawed, or ban- 
ished, or any ways destroyed; nor will we pass upon him, nor will we send upon 
him, unless by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. 



358 MedicEval History. 

traits, unrelieved by a single redeeming virtue. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Henry, then only nine years old. 

45. Henry III. During the first part of this reign, the 
country was governed by the guardians of tha young king, 

and was much disturbed by wars vv^ith France. 

After attaining the age of majority, Henry had 



First events. 



frequent disputes with the barons, who compelled him to con- 
firm the Great Charter in the most solemn m.uiner. They 
nevertheless continued to oppose the royal authority, in con- 
sequence of the unwise exactions of Henry, and his submis- 
sion to the influence of foreigners, by whom the offices both 
of church and state were filled. 

46. Through the efforts of Simon de Mont'fort, Earl of 
Leicester {les'ter), twenty-four barons were appointed by the 
great council to regulate the kingdom; and to this arrange- 
ment the king gave his assent (1258). A quarrel afterward 
arising between the nobles and the royalists, civil 
war ensued; and the king's forces were defeated 



Civil war. 



at Lew'es, and he and his son, Prince Edward, were taken 
prisoners (1264). This placed the government mainly under 
the control of Leicester, who, in order to strengthen his influ- 
ence, summoned a council (now styled a parlia- 
ment), and gave seats in it not only to the barons 



Parliament. 



and knights, but to the representatives of the boroughs, or 
towns (12G5). This is considered the first institution of the 
House of Commons — the most important branch of the Eng- 
lish legislature. 

47. Prince Edward, having escaped from the confinement 
in which he had been kept by Leicester, raised an army; and, 
in the battle of Eves'ham, entirely defeated the 
forces of Leicester, who, with his eldest son, was 
among the slain (1265).* This placed Henry 



Defeat of 
Leicester. 



* " The Earl moved to a place on the Avon, called Evesham, and with great glad- 
ness savA his own banners coming over the hills from Kenilworth. These, however, 
turned out to be the captured standards of his son; and when he looked to ether 



The Plantagenets. 859 

again on the throne; and Prince Edward having by prudent 
measures restored general tranquillity, by infusing a wiser and 
more popular spirit in the government, went on a crusade to 
the Holy Land. Before his return, his father died (1272), 
after the exceedingly long reign of tifty-six years. Henry 
was mild and pacific in his disposition, but pos- 
sessed neither the talents nor force of character 
required to cope successfully with the difficulties 



Character of 
Henry. 



of so disturbed a period. England, however, increased in 
wealth and influence during this reign, and widely extended 
her commercial relations with other countries. 

48. Edward I. The first important event of this reign 
was the conquest of Wales, which Edward undertook because 
Llew-el'lyn, prince of that country, refused to do 
him the homage which he owed as a vassal. The 
conquest was completed in 1283; Llewellyn beini 



Conquest of 
Wales. 



defeated and slain, and the principality of Wales conferred 
upon the king's eldest son, called the '' Prince of Wales" — 
a title ever afterward borne by the eldest son of the English 
sovereign. The wars with Scotland occupy nearly all the 
rest of this reign. Alexander III., king of that country, 
having died without a male heir, several competi- 
tors arose for the throne, the most noted of whom 
were John Ba'li-ol and Eobert Bruce, the former 



War with 
Scotland. 



being the grandson of a second daughter, and the latter a 

points of the compass, he saw glittering flies of spears advancing in converging 
lines toward the position he held. Bitterly, as he saw this sight, did he ciy, ' It 
was I who taught them the art of war.' But bitter words were of little use at such 
a crisis. Having put his men in array of battle, he knelt down to say a short prayer, 
and then took the sacrament, as pious knights always did before going to battle. 
The fortunes of the day went against him from the first, but he resolved to sell his 
life dearly. His last stand was made on the top of a hill, where he gathered round 
him in a solid circle some of his bravest men. When his horse was killed he fought 
on foot; but the circle at length yielded to the pressure of charges from every side, 
and brave old Leicester, a benefactor of the English people second to none, fell on 
his last field. His head and limbs were brutally chopped off, and the horrible frag- 
ments were sent as a present to the wife of his greatest toe,'"— Collier's Pictures 
of Ei^jlish History. 



360 Mediceval History. 

son of a third daughter, of David, the brother of a previous 
king. A furious dispute having arisen in the Scotch parha- 
ment, as to the succession, the matter was referred to the 
arbitration of Edward, who, in accordance with the unani- 
mous opinion of all the great lawyers of Europe, decided in 
favor of Baliol, as being the most direct descendant, and he 
was accordingly placed upon the throne. 

49. Edward, however, had meanly taken advantage of the 
circumstances to compel Baliol to take an oath of fealty to 
him, and thus to acknowledge himself a vassal to the English 
crown; and he subsequently so harassed him by frequent and 
degrading commands, that Baliol was finally provoked into a 
refusal to comply, determining to make a stand for his own 
and his people's liberty. He was, however, unsuccessful; for 
Edward, invading Scotland with a large army, 
defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar (1296), 
after which the latter surrendered, and was carried 



Battle of 
Dunbar. 



captive to England. He was afterward released, and died in 

obscurity, in Erance. 

60. Scotland, although subdued for a time, soon found a 

noble champion in the renowned William Wallace, who de- 
feated an English army of 40,000 men, near 
Stirling, and committed great ravages in the 



north of England (1297). The next year, however, Edward 
defeated Wallace, in the battle of Fal'kirk, and again estab- 
lished his government in Scotland. Wallace was never after- 
ward able to gain a decisive victory over his country's enemies; 
although he fought bravely for several years, until, having 
been betrayed by one of his own countrymen into the power 
of Edward, that remorseless king sent him to London; and, 
in order to intimidate the Scottish leaders, caused him to be 
executed (1305). 

51. The people of Scotland made still another effort to 
regain their liberties, under the leadership of Robert Bruce, 
grandson of the competitor of Baliol, and now acknowledged 



The Plantagenets. 861 



the rightful heir to the throne. The attempt was successful, 
the English being driven from the country. But 
Bruce afterward suffered a defeat from one of 



Robert Bruce. 



Death of 
Edward. 



Edward's generals; and the king himself marched to com- 
plete the conquest, but was suddenly taken ill, 
and died, at Carlisle (1307), enjoining with his 
last breath his son Edward to prosecute the enter- 
prise, until the Scots should be entirely subdued. 

52. Edward I. had also carried on war with Philip IV. of 
France, who had formed an alliance with the Scottish king, 
Baliol. He confirmed, but with great reluctance, 
the Great Charter ; and (in 1295) caused the 



Parliament. 



deputies from the boroughs to meet the other representatives 
in Parliament, stating that " what concerns all should be 
approved by all," — a principle that lies at tlie foundation of 
all civil and political freedom. Edward was one 
of the ablest and most successful monarchs that 
ever reigned. He was politic and warlike, popu- 



Character of 
Edward I. 



lar on account of his majestic personal appearance, his mili- 
tary success, and his wise measures. His efforts to reform 
and establish the laws gained for him the appellation of the 
E7iglish Justinian. 

53. Edward 11., unmindful of his father's dying injunc- 
tion, withdrew his forces from Scotland, and the people of 
that country gradually recovered their freedom. 
Having, at last, in the seventh year of his reign. 



Bannockburn. 



invaded the country, he was disastrously defeated by Eobert 
Bruce, in the famous battle of Bannockburn (1314). Of a 
character the very reverse of his father, Edward soon lost the 
respect of his people, and gave great offense to the nobles by 
surrendering himself to the influence of foreign favorites. 
Civil war finally broke out, in which Isabella, 
Edward's queen, took part against him ; and 



Fate of the king. 



being deserted by his subjects, lie fell into the hands of liis 
enemies, who kept him for some time in prison, but at Ust 



362 Mediceval History. 

caused him to be put to death in the most shocking manner 
(1327). His son Edward had previously been declared king. 

54. Edv/ard III. In consequence of the youth of the 
king, a council of regency was appointed to administer the 
government; but the real power was possessed 
by Isabella and her paramour, the infamous Mor'- 
ti-mer, a prominent baron, both of whom had 



Isabella and 
Mortimer. 



been accessory to the murder of the late king. This occa- 
sioned universal disgust and abhorrence; and the young king 
soon (1330) found means to punish the murderers of his 
father, Mortimer being seized and executed as a common 
criminal, and Isabella placed in confinement, where she was 
kept until her death. The Scots were defeated 
by Edward in. the great battle of Halidon Hill 



Halidon Hill. 



(1333), and thus were again brought into subjection to the 
English crown, the young king David Bruce fleeing to France. 
65. Edward's next object of ambition was to acquire pos- 
session of the throne of France, circumstances seeming to 
favor that project; for Charles IV., the king of that country, 
having died without heirs, the nation had placed his cousin 
Philip VI. on the throne. But Edward, through his mother 
Isabella, was a more direct descendant; and on this ground, 
notwithstanding that the ancient laws of France {the Salic 
law — i.e., law of the Salian Franks) excluded females from 
the throne, he claimed his right to the succession, 
and proceeded to vindicate it by force of arms. 
Having destroyed the French fleet in a great 



Attack on 
France. 



naval battle (1340), he invaded France, and with forces far 
inferior to those of Philip, defeated him in the memorable 
battle of Crecy {ki^es'e). This battle is made par- 
ticularly interesting, not only by the greatness of 



Crecy. 



the victory, but by the fact that in it cannon were for the 
first time employed by the English,* and also as the occasion 

* Firearms appear to have been used by the Chinese in 618 b.c, nearly two thou- 
sand years before the battle of Crecy. They were also used in different forms iu 



The Plantagenets. 363 

on which the king's son Edward, afterward styled the Black 
Prince (from the color of his armor), commenced his bril- 
liant military career (1346).* 

66. Edward next took Calais {kal'is), after a long siege; 
and expelling all the inhabitants, peopled it anew with Eng- 
lish. This city, regarded as the key of France, 
the English retained for nearly two centuries. 



Calais. 



While Edward was thus engaged, the Scottish people had 
again placed David Bruce upon the throne, who invading 
England, was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of 
Neville's Cross, near Dur'ham (1346). This vic- 
tory was due to the activity and heroism of Phi- 



Neville's Cross. 



lip'pa, Edward's queen, who, previous to the action, rode 
through the ranks of the army, encouraging the 
soldiers. A dreadful plague that swept av/ay 



Plague. 



many thousands of the people, not only in England but in 
other parts of Europe, caused for a time a cessation of hostili- 
ties between the French and English. 

57. Philip, king of France, having been succeeded by 
John (1350), and the country been distracted by factious 
dissensions, Edward resolved again to attack it; and for this 
purpose dispatched the Black Prince with an army to Guienne, 
while he himself was to make an incursion by way of Calais. 

India ; and, as early as the eighth century, by the Saracens. The invention of gun- 
powder is generally attributed to Friar Bacon, who in 1270 announced its composi- 
tion ; but it was not till 1320 that the proper mode of making it was understood. 
King Edward's cannon were only of the size of duck-guns. 

* The young Prince of Wales had been knighted only a month before; and Ed- 
ward, who was watching the battle from a windmill, resolved to leave to his son 
the glory of victory. Although the prince was then hard pressed by the French, 
the king refused to send succor to his assistance, sajing, ' Let the child win his 
spurs, and let the day be his.' . . . The whole French army took to flight, and 
was followed and put to the sword, without mercy, till the darkness of the night 
put an end to the pursuit. The king, on kis return to the camp, flew into the arms 
of the Prince of Wales, and exclaimed, ' My brave son 1 persevere in your honorable 
course; you are my son, for valiantly have you acquitted yourself to-day, and 
worthy are you of a cro'v\Ti.' From this time the young prince became the terror 
of the French, by whom he was called the Black Prince, from the color of tbp 
ftrnior wlxich he wore on that day."— iyuwie's History of Encrlan4t 



364 



MedicBval History. 



The former penetrated into the heart of France with an army 
of 12,000 men; but at Poitiers {poi-terz') found 
himself confronted by a splendidly equipped force 

of 60,000 men, commanded by John in person. Desirous 



Poitiers. 



to retreat, the Prince offered to restore air his conquests and 
give up the war; but John declining any terms but uncon- 
ditional surrender, a battle ensued, which, owing to the skill 




Military Accoutbrments op the Black Prince, Suspended over his Tomb at 
Canterbury Cathedral. 

and valor of the Black Prince, resulted in the entire over- 
tnrow of the French, John himself being made a prisoner 
(1356). The French king was kept in captivity 
in London till ransomed by his subjects (1360); 



Death of John. 



but not being able to fulfill the terms of his release, he re- 
turned to London, where he died the next year (1364). 

58. Under his successor war was renewed between the two 
countries; but Edward gained no permanent advantage, not- 



The Plantagenets. 365 

withstanding the able generalship of the Black Prince. 
This renowned leader soon after died, worn out 
by incessant toil and exposure (1376). He was 



Black Prince. 



universally esteemed, not only for his heroism and military 
genius, but for the generosity, moderation, and 
amiability which shed still greater luster on his 
character. The king survived him only a year. 



Death of the 
king. 



He was succeeded by Richard, the son of the Black Prince, 
then only eleven years old (1377). 

59. Edward III. was a wise and powerful monarch, popu- 
lar not only for his military success and prudent administra- 
tion, but for his many personal accomplishments. 
Although nearly all his time was spent in war, he 



Character 



was comparatively quite a learned man. His familiarity with 
the Latin and German languages was of great service to him 
in his foreign wars and negotiations. He took no important 
steps Avithout consulting his parliament, and so greatly en- 
couraged trade that he has been called the '^ Father 
of English commerce." Wool was the chief arti- 



Trade. 



cle of export, and an extensive trade was carried on with the 
ports of the Baltic. He kept up a close connection with the 
Flemings, then noted for their extensive woolen manufactures, 
and thus increased the English trade. 

60. Richard II. The first part of this reign is noted for 
an insurrection of the lower orders of the people, occasioned 
by the condition of serfdom in which they were 
kept, and the miseries to which they were subjected 



Serfdonn. 



by the unjust laws of the period, and by the oppressions of 
the wealthier classes. The immediate occasion of the out- 
break was the imposition of a tax on every person above 
fifteen years of age, and the indignity with which a young 

maiden, the daughter of one Wat Tyler (or Wat, [ 

the' tiler), was treated by a brutal tax-gatherer. I ^ ^^'- 
This so incensed her father that he struck the officer dend 
with his hammer; and, being joined by his friends m^ 



366 Mediceval History. 

neighbors, raised a revolt, and placed himself at the head of 
the insurgents. 

61. The populace, to the number of 100,000 men, assem- 
bled at Blackheatli, near London, broke into the city, burned 
the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the ware- 
houses, and murdered the archbishop and many other persons 
of distinction. The king having entered upon a conference 
with Wat Tyler, the latter, it is said, acted with so much 
insolence that Wal' worth, the Mayor of London, struck him 
with his sword; whereupon Tyler was imme- 
diately dispatched by others of the king's retinue. 
Eichard, to quell the mutiny, acceded to the demands of the 
insurgents, and the latter dispersed; but the nobility having 
raised a large army, the ringleaders were apprehended and 
executed, and the concessions of the king were annulled 
(1381). This made Richard very unpopular with the com- 
mon people, for their demands had been reasonable and just; 
the most important being that ville7iage and serf- 
dom should be abolished, the people paying a 
fixed rent for their lands, instead of being bound 



Death of Wat. 



Villenage and 
serfdom. 



to do such services as their feudal lords might require. Serf- 
dom, however, did not entirely cease in England until more 
than four centuries after the date of these events. 

62. The subsequent conduct of this king was characterized 
by indolence and inefficiency. He quarreled with the great 
officers and distinguished nobles of his court, and 
gave his entire confidence to unworthy favorites. 
He had banished his cousin Henry, son of John 



The king's 

character and 

conduct. 



of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, for being concerned in a duel; 
and, on the death of the duke, proceeded to dispossess Henry 
of his estates and annex them to those of the crown. Henry, 
however, taking advantage of Richard's absence in Ireland, 
landed with a small force in England; and so 
unpopular was the king, that the invader was 



Deposition. 



soon joined by a force of 60^000 men, Richard was accord- 



Wickliffe and 
Chaucer. 



The Plantagenets. 367 

iugly depooed (1399), and, it is said, was soon afterward mur- 
dered. During this reign Wickliffe, called by 
some the ''morning star of the Keformation," 
translated the Bible. He and his doctrines were 
much favored by John of Gaunt.* Chaucer, styled the 
''Father of English poetry," also wrote his celebrated poem, 
"The Canterbury Tales." 

63. Henry IV., the first of the house of Lancaster, had no 
legal right to the throne, being a descendant of the fourth 
son of Edward III., while Edmund Mortimer 
was living, who was descended from the third 
son of the same monarch; hence this reign was 



Right to the 
throne. 



little else than a series of insurrections. The most formidable 
was that excited by the Eiirl of Northumberland and his son, 
Harry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, on account of 
his fiery temper. This young nobleman was dis- 



Hotspur. 



tinguished for the battle which, in the previous reign, he had 
fought with the Scots at Otterburn (1388), and on which was 
founded the famous ballad of "Chevy Chase." He had also 
greatly aided Henry v^ his efforts to obtain possession of the 
kingdom; but, afterward quarreling with him, joined his 
forces to those of the Scots under Douglas and the Welsh 
under Owen Glen'dower, with the object of placing Morti- 
mer on the throne. A terrific battle was fought 
near Shrewsbury (1403); but the rebels were 



Shrewsbury 



defeated, and their brave leader, Percy, was slain. The 
king and his son took part in the battle, and signalized 
themselves by their feats of strength and daring. Henry 
IV., after his death in 1413, was succeeded by his son, 
Henry V. 

64. Henry V., during his father's life, had been notorious 
for his riotous and disorderly conduct; and had, on one occa- 

* Wickliffe advocated many of the reforms and doctrines afterward prenrhed 
by Luther and his followers in the sixteenth century. The followers of W^ickliffe 
were called Lollards, a name first used in the Netherlands about 1300, 



868 MedicBval History. 

sion, been committed to prison by the chief -justice, whom ho 
had insulted for indicting one of his dissohite companions. 
On his accession, however, he dismissed his 
profligate associates and tlioroughly reformed 
liis life, retainins: in office the wise ministers of 



Change ii 
character 



his father, including the chief -justice by whom he had been 
so fearlessly punished. Soon afterward he invaded France; 
and having taken Ilarfleur, after a long siege, he engaged the 
French army, four times as numerous as his own, and totally 
routed it in the memorable battle of Ag'in-court 
(1415), 10,000 of the French being slain and 



Agincourt. 



14,000 taken prisoners; while, it is said, the English lost 
only 40. Henry then returned to England; but, two years 
later, he again crossed to France, and, after some successes, a 
treaty was concluded (1420) at Troyes (trwah), by 
which Henry was to marry the king's daughter 
Catharine, and to succeed to the French throne 



Treaty of 
Troyes. 



on the death of Charles, and the two kingdoms were to be 
united. This treaty was carried into effect, and Henry, as 
regent of France, entered Paris in triumph. But, in a few 
months, death stopped short his triumphant career, and put 
an end to all his schemes of vainglory and ambition (1422). 
He left one son, Henry, less than a year old. Tlic 
persecution of the Lollards, commenced in the 



Lollards. 



previous reign, was continued in this. 

65. Henry VI., at his accession, was proclaimed by the 
Parliament king of France as well as of England; and his 
uncle, the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished prince of 
his age, was appointed Protector of the kingdom 
and guardian of the infant king. On arriving 



Protectorate. 



at the age of majority, he showed neither the capacity nor the 
disposition to take control of the government. He married 
Margaret of Anjou, a princess whose accomplish- 
ments and masculine energy of character were 



Marriage. 



well suited to supply the defects and weaknesses of her hus- 



The Plantagenets. 369 

band.* But the incapacity of the king encouraged the rival 
house of York to lay claim to the throne, in hehalf of Richard, 
Duke of York, the descendant of Edward's third son, who 
was a man of ability and valor, as well as immense wealth. 
In this pretension Richard was upheld by the greatest noble- 
man of the kingdom, the renowned Earl of Warwick {war'- 
rick). afterward called the Kinn-maker, whose i ■ 

' , -1 Warwick. 

means and possessions were so extensive that I . 

30,000 retainers were constantly supported by him in his 
various castles and manors, f An insurrection 
of the lower orders, under a leader named Jack 



Jack Cade. 



Cade, broke out about this time, but was soon put down, 
Cade being slain (1450). 

66. The king's government being very uni:)opular, Richard 
raised an army, ostensibly for the redress of 
grievances; and in the battle of St. Albans {aivr- 
bans) defeated the royalists (1455), and took the 



War of the 
Roses, 



king prisoner. This was the first battle in that gi'eat civil war 



* " When Henry was twenty-three years old, his council suggested that it was 
time he should marry ; and every one foresaw that the queen, whoever she might 
be, would possess the control over the weak mind of her husband. The choice of 
Henry was directed toward Margaret the daughter of Rene, King of Sicily and 
Duke of Anjou. In personal beauty she was thought superior to most women, in 
mental capacity equal to most men of the age. The marriage was agreed on. 
Margaret landed at Portchester, was married to Henry at Tichfield, and cro^vaaed 
Maj' 30, 1444."— Lmj/arrZ's History of England. 

t "During the whole extent of England's history, under the Saxon, Dane, or 
Norman, the mightiest of her barons was the king-maker, Warwick. It was his 
power that made Edward king, and his that unmade him. It was his power that 
dethroned King Henry, and it was his that restored him. Each monarch in turn 
became the captive and prisoner of this great earl. With princely revenues and 
estates, Warwick's vassals were an army ; and some notion may be formed of the 
f«rce he could, at will, bring armed into the field, from the fact that he is said to 
have daily feasted, at his numerous manors and castles, upward of thirty thousand 
persons. The other nobles possessed, in their degree, the power of an armed feu- 
dal retinue, ready to follow their lord to battle in any cause of his choosing ; and 
thus there was a baronial power of which modern England shows only the shadow. 
As the traveler now beholds the stately walls of Warwick Castle, he can scarce, 
with all the impulse given to his imagination, call up the vision of the armed hosts 
which, some three hundred years ago. could, at a moment's summons, be gathered 
there in battle array."— i?eed's Lectures on English History. 



370 MedicBval History. 

styled the " War of the Roses" (from the badges of the par- 
ties, the Lancastrians wearing a red rose and the Yorkists a 
white rose). This war lasted thirty years, was signalized by 
twelve pitched battles, and almost annihilated the ancient 
nobility of England. The next year after the battle of St. 
Albans, the king was restored to his authority; but the con- 
test soon broke out with increased fury, and in the battle of 
Northampton the king was defeated and taken prisoner by 
the Earl of Warwick (1460), after which the Duke of York 
was proclaimed the lawful successor of Henry, and Edward, 
the son of Henry and Margaret, was excluded from the throne. 
The queen, however, fled to Scotland, and with the aid of the 
northern barons raised a large army, with which, in the battle 
of Wakefield, she defeated the Duke of York, who was taken 
prisoner and put to death (1460). A few weeks after this 
Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick and regained posses- 
sion of the king; but Edward, son of the late 
Duke of York, joining his forces with those of 



Edward IV. 



Warwick, compelled her to retreat, and, triumphantly enter- 
ing London, was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward 
IV. (1461). 

67. Edward IV. Queen Margaret, however, was not sub- 
dued. She succeeded in collecting an army of 60,000 men in 
the northern counties, with which she encountered the forces 
of Edward and Warwick in the terrific battle of Tow'ton; 
but was totally defeated (1461), and compelled, 
with her husband, to take refuge in Scotland. 
During the next three years Margaret made but 



Defeat of 
Margaret. 



one effort to recover the lost kingdom, but was defeated and 
compelled to flee to France; a short time after which Henry 
fell into the possession of the king, and was conflned in the 
Tower at London. Edward's vices, however, 
and his marriage with Elizabeth Gray, a Lan- 
castrian knight's widow, upon whose relatives 



Vices of the 
king. 



the infatuated monarch showered all his favors, so dis- 



The Plantagenets. §71 

gusted the brave and high-spirited Warwick that he de- 
serted the cause of Edward, and formed an alliance with 
Margaret. So popular was this nobleman that in a few days 
he raised an army of 60,000 men, compelled Edward to flee, 
and placed Henry again on the throne (1471). Disaster soon 
followed this great victory; for Edward landing 
in England with a small force, was soon joined 
by an immense army, and regaining possession of 



Henry again 
king. 



London, once more made prisoner the hapless Henry, and 
marched against Warwick, who had taken a position at Bar'- 
net, near London. 

68, The king-maker, deserted by his son-in-law, the Duke 
of Clarence, brother to Edward, who with a large force went 
over to the Yorkists, was defeated in the battle 
of Barnet, and slain (1471); and, a fortnight 
afterward, Edward gained a decisive victory over 



Defeat of 
Warwick. 



the forces of Margaret at Tewks'bury, the latter, with her 
son Edward, being among, the prisoners. The young prince 
was cruelly put to death by the Dukes of Clarence and Glos- 
ter, brothers of Edward IV., and Margaret was imprisoned in 
the Tower. A few days after this battle Henry 
expired in the Tower, according to general be- 



Death of Henry. 



lief, by the murderous hand of the cruel and wicked Duke of 
Gloster. Queen Margaret afterward found a refuge in France, 
where she died (1482). Edward, being now secure on the 
throne, gave himself up to every species of vice and debauch- 
ery. He caused his brother, Duke of Clarence, 
to be put to death on a charge of treason, being 
probably instigated to this crime by his younger 



Murder of 
Clarence. 



brother, Eichard, Duke of Gloster, who was noted for his 
designing character and unrelenting ambition. Edward was 
about to engage in a war with France, when he was seized 
with a distemper, of which he expired (1483). 

69. Edward V., the eldest son of Edward IV., a youth of 
twelve years, was pj.'oclaimed king; and his uncle, the Duke 



B7'2 Mediceval History. 

of Gloster, was appointed Protector. This artful and wicked 
prince, obtaining possession of the young king 
and his brother Richard, phiced tlicm in the 



DukeofGloster 



Tower; and caused Lord Rivers, their maternal uncle, and 
Lord Hastings, with several other distinguished persons, to 
be executed on a charge of treason. He then gave out that 
the young princes were illegitimate; and contrived that some 
of his friends should solicit him to take the crown, which, 
with pretended reluctance, he accepted, and held under the 
title of Richard III (1483). 

70. Richard III. The first act of this wicked usurper 
was to destroy the two young princes, who are supposed to 
have been smothered in their beds in the Tower 
by his orders. But he was not permitted quietly 
to enjoy the fruits of his crimes. A conspiracy 



Murder of the 
princes. 



was formed against him by his former friend, the Duke of 
Buckingham; but it failed, and Buckingham was seized and 
executed. The nation, however, soon found a deliverer in 
Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the last heir 
of the house of Lancaster, who, landing at Mil'- 



Henry Tudor. 



ford Haven, in Wales, was soon joined by sufficient forces to 
cope with those of the usurper. An engagement took place 
at Bosworth Field; and Richard, being deserted 
by Lord Stanley and a large part of his army, was 



Bosworth. 



defeated, and he himself, fighting desperately in the conflict, 
was slain. Richmond was proclaimed king on the battle-field, 
with the title of Henry VII., by Sir William Stanley, brother 
of Lord Stanley (1485).* 

* " The battle which brought to a close the famous War of the Roses was fought 
on Redmore Plain, about a mile to the south of Market-Bosworth in Leicestershire. 
From this town it received the name by which it is most generally called— the bat- 
tle of Bosworth. The leaders of the war were Richard Plantagenet, a little sharp- 
faced man, with one shoulder somewhat higher than the other, from which slight 
deformity he was branded by his enemies with the name of Hunchback; and Henry 
Tudor, or Tydder, a gray-eyed cautious man, with long yellow hair. The former 
represented the House of York; the latter, the House of Lancaster."— CoHier's 
Pictures from English Historu. 



The Plantagenets. S73 



State of Society in England, 

During tJie Period of the Plantagemts (1154-1485). 

71. The institution of the House of Commons, the grant- 
ing of Magna Charta, and the abolition of serfdom were the 
most important events in the political and social 
progress of England during this period. The 
English kings constantly sought to evade the 



Political and 
social progress. 



provisions of the great charter, but without success, for no 
less than thirty-eight times were they compelled to ratify it. 
Trial by jury took the place of the ^'judicial 
combat" of the Normans, the charter prescribing 



Trial by jury. 



" the legal judgment of his peers" as necessary for the con- 
demnation of every one charged with committing crime. 

72. In the earlier reigns, although so much had been ac- 
complished toward laying the foundation of English liberty, the 
condition of the common people was very little 
im]n-ovc>d. A degrading system of serfdom con- 



Serfdom. 



tinned to exist. Slaves were bought and sold at the fairs, 
and it is said that the price of a man was less than that of a 
horse.* But in the Lancastrian period, the result of the great 
civil commotions was to introduce considerable changes in 
the social condition of the people. One of the 
most important of these w^as the extinction of 



villanage, or serfdom. The nobles being compelled to arm 
their serfs in the Wars of the Roses, could never afterward 



* " Of the two millions of human beings who inhabited England in the reign of 
John, a very large number, probably nearly half, vrere in a state of slavery. Those 
who are disposed to listen to tales about ' Merrie England ' and ' the good old 
times ' should remember this fact. At the commencement of true English history, 
we start with the laborers in abject wretchedness. The narrative of the changes 
in their social and political positions thenceforward to modern times is certainly a 
history of progressive amelioration, though lamentably slow and imperfect."— 
Creasy. 



374 



MedicBval Jffisiory. 



reduce them to servitude. The ancient nobility having nearly 
all perished in these long wars, feudalism in 
England was destroyed, and a better system 



Feudalism. 



took its place. 

73. The great staple of commerce was wool, which, with 

other commodities — tin, lead, leather, etc. — was sold princi- 
pally to the German 
merchants, who ex- 



Commerce. 



ported into England gold, silver, 
silks, wines, spices, and other lux- 
uries for exchange. In the latter 
part of the period silk - making 
was introduced, and a law was 
passed to protect those engaged 
in it from the competition of the 
Lombard merchants (1455). Agri- 
culture continued to be very rude; 

and large tracts of tilled land were converted into 
sheep-pastures, in order that the grain of foreign 




1 2 3 

Knight of Garter; 2. Gentle- 
man; 3. Citizen. 



Agi-iculture. 



countries might be purchased with the wool thus obtained. 




Hats and Caps. 

74. The modes of living gradually became more refined. 
Glass windows, vessels of earthenware, the use of coal for fuel 
and of candles for lighting purposes enlarged the 
comforts of the people. The costume of this 
period was curious and fantastic. Long-pointed shoes, with 
the toes fastened to the knees or the girdle; stockings of 
different colors; a coat half blue or black, half white, with 



Mode of living. 



1 



The Ptantagenets. 



^75 



trousers reaching scarcely to the knees, were some of the 
most prominent peculiarities in the dress of the ~~ 

T rni IT- , T T Costume. 

fine gentlemen. The ladies wore party-colored 

tunics, very short tippets, small caps, and girdles orna- 



mented with gold and silver, in which they carried two 
small swords. Their trains were very long; and their head- 




Ladies' He ad-Dresses. (Froissart.) 

dresses towered sometimes two feet above their heads, and 
were decked at the summit with waving ribbons of various 
colors. 

75. Science made some progress, particularly through the 
researches of Eoger Bacon (1214-1292), who applied the 
learning which he had acquired at Oxford to the 
making of useful inventions. He discovered the 
composition of gunpowder and the use of the 



Science and 
learning. 



magnifying-glass, and devised various matliematical and philo- 
sophical instruments. This wonderful knowledge caused 
him to be regarded by the people as a magician, and he was 
confined in prison for many years. Astrology and alchemy 
were favorite subjects of research; but though 
the alchemists failed in their laborious search 
for the ^^philosopher's stone" and the '^ elixir of 



Astrology and 
alchemy. 



life," they laid, by their experiments, the foundation of 



^76 



Mediceval History, 



modern cliemistyy, as the astrologers, by their constant obser- 
vations, contributed to the progress of astronomy. 

76. The great event of this period was the introduction of 
printing by William Caxton, who, after acquiring a knowl- 
edge of the art in Holland and Germany, set up 
a press at Westminster, during the reign of Ed- 



Printing. 



ward IV. Previous to this there were no books except such 
as had been prepared with great expense of time and labor 
in the *^ writing-rooms" of the monasteries, for learning was 
confined almost exclusively to the clergy. The 
first book printed in England by Caxton was 



Caxton. 



The Game and Playe of Chesse 
(1474). The types used by him 
were like those used by the Ger. 
mans {black-letter), which was the 
common style of print till the 
reign of James I. 

77. The first era of English 
literature may be placed in the 
reign of Edward III., 
when the Travels of 
Sir John Ma^idevilU 



English 
literature. 




were published (1360). This is Chaucer. 

the earliest known work in English prose. The famous 
John Wickliffe (1324-1384), who translated the Bible, and 
the poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) flourished during 
the same reign. The language of these writers is called 
"Middle English," because it comes between the 
" semi-Saxon," which preceded it, and modern 
English, which commenced in the reign of Elizabeth. Dra- 
matic literature included only such compositions 
as the Mysteries or Miracle Plays, the subjects 
selected being of a religious character. They were succeeded 
by the Moral Plays, the object of which was to give moral 
lessons by presenting on the stage ingenious allegories. 



Middle English. 



The drama. 



Principal Events and hates. 



377 



Kings of England, 

From Egbert (827) to Henry VU. (1485). 



Line. Name. Date 

Egbert 

Four reigns 

Alfred the Great 

Edward the Elder 

Eight reigns 

^ I Canute 

•g < Harold I. (Barefoot) 

' Hardicanute 

§ J Edward the Confessor — . 

g 1 Harold II 

'". r William I 

1 I William II 

g 1 Henry I 

^ [ Stephen 



of reign. 
827- 830 
836- 871 
871- 901 
901- 925 
925-1016 
1016-1035 
1035-1040 
1040-1042 
1042-1066 
1066-1066 
1066-1087 
1087-1100 
1100-1135 
1135-1154 



Line. Name. 

Henry II 

Richard I... 

John 

Henry III... 
Edward I . . . 
Edward II.. 
Edward HI. 
Richard II 
Henry IV... 
Henry v.... 
Henry VI... 
Edward IV. . 
Edward v.. 
I Richard III. 



Date 



of reign. 
1154-1189 
1189-1199 
1199-1216 
1216-1272 
1272-1307 
1307-1327 
1327-1377 
1377-1399 
1399-1413 
1413-1422 
142'2-1461 
1461-1483 
148;3-1483 
1483-1485 



Summary of Principal Events and Dates. 



Union of the Saxon kingdoms under Egbert 827 

Battle of Hastings. Harold defeated by the Normans 1066 

Assassination of Thomas a Becket 1170 

Conquest of Ireland 1172 

Magna Charta signed by King John 1215 

Battle of Lewes. Defeat of Henry III. by Leicester 1264 

House of Commons instituted by Leicester 1265 

Conquest of Wales by Edward 1 1272 

The Scots defeated at Dunbar by Edward 1 1296 

William Wallace defeated at Falkirk 1298 

Wallace taken prisoner and executed , ♦ 1305 

Edward II. defeated by Robert Bi uce at Bannockbum 1314 

The Scots defeated at Halidon Hill 1333 

The French defeated at Crecy by Edward III 1346 

The French defeated at Poitiers by the Black Prince 1356 

Death of Edward the Black Prince 1376 

Insurrection under Wat Tyler 1381 

Battle of Otterburn between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas 1388 

A Lollard clergyman burnt at the stake 1401 

Battle of Shrewsbury. Percy defeated and slain 1403 

The French defeated at Agincourt by Henry V 1415 

Jack Cade's rebellion 1450 

The royalists defeated at St. Albans 1455 

Battle of Northampton. Henry VI. taken prisoner 1460 

Queen Margaret defeated at Towton 1461 

Warwick defeated by Edward IV. at Barnet 1471 

Art of Printmg mtroduced into England 1474 

Death of Queen Margaret in France 1482 

Battle of Bosworth. Henry VII. proclaimed king 1485 



878 



MedicBval History. 



Topical Review. 



CONQUERING- RAGES. 

Who were they? 

What conquests did they mdkef p^qe 

Burgundians 297, 316 

Lombards 299, 304 

Avars £99, 303 

Bulgarians 303, 304, 306 

Slavonians 303, 306 

Sueves 297, 298 

Magyars 307 

Seljuks 307, 330 

Mongols and Ottomans 309 

Franks 315 

Alemanni 316 

Normans 320 

Saxons 322, 323 

Saracens 305, 324, 326, 327, 328 

EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Who were they? 

In what period did they live? 

With what events connected? 

Theodoric 301, 302 

Belisarius 302, 303 

Alboin 304 

Khosru 305 

Genghis Khan, Amurath 309 

Timour 310 

Clovis T. 316 

Charles Martel 317, 328 

Pepin the Short 318 

Charlemagne 318 

Alcuin 319 

RoUo 321 

Mohammed, Egbert 324 

Omar 327 

Haroun al Raschid 329 

Alfred the Great 334 

Harold, Sweyn 335 

WiUiam the Conqueror 335, 338 

Matilda, Geoffrey Plantagenet 341 

William of Malmsbury 346 

Henry of Huntingdon 346 

Geofifrey Monmouth 346 

Eleanor of Guienne 350 

Thomas h. Becket 351 

St. Patrick 352 



PAGE 

Prince Arthur 355 

Robert Bruce 359, 360 

Edward the Black Prince . . 363, 364, 365 

Wat Tyler 365, 366 

Harry Percy (Hotspur) 367 

Earl of Warwick 369, 370, 371 

Margaret of Anjou 368, 370, 371 

Jack Cade 369 

Elizabeth Gray 370 

Richard, Duke of Gloster 371, 372 

Henry Tudor 372 

Roger Bacon 375 

William Caxton 376 

Sir John Mandeville 376 

Geoffrey Chaucer 367, 376 

John Wickliffe 367, 376 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

When did they occur? 

WJiat led to them? 

What resulted therefrom? 

Conquest of Italy by the Goths 302 

Lombard conquest of Italy 304 

Fall of the Sassanides 305 

Taking of Constantinople 308, 310 

Foundation of the French monarchy 316 

Defeat of the Saracens 317, 318 

Hegira 325 

Saracenic conquest of Spain 328 

Taking of Bagdad 330 

Danish invasion of England 331 

Battle of Hastings 335 

Conquest of Ireland 352, 353 

Signing of Magna Charta 356 

Institution of the House of Commons 358 

Battle of Evesham 358 

Conquest of Wales 359 

Conquest of Scotland 360 

Battle of Bannockburn 361 

Battle of Crecy 362 

Battle of Poitiers 364 

Battle of Shrewsbury 367 

Battle of Agincourt 368 

Treaty of Troyes 368 

Battle of Towton 370 

Battle of Barnet 371 

End of the Plantagenets 372 



No. 12. 




CHAPTER Y, 
France in the Middle Ages. 



SECTION I. 

The Oapetian Dynasty. 

1. During the period of nearly two centuries (814-987) 
that ehipsed from the death of Charlemagne to the termina- 
tion of the reign of his successors, called the 
Carlovingia?i dynasty, the throne of France 
was occupied mostly by weak princes. Toward 



Carlovmgian 
princes. 



the close of this period, the feudal lords had sliorn the king 
of most of his power, and the kingdom consisted of a loose 
collection of provinces over which they held 
sway. At length Hugh Capet [hali-pa'), styled 



Hugh Capet, 



Hugh the Great, the most powerful of these vassals, seized 
the throne, and inaugurated a new line of kings, named after 
him the Capetian dynasty. 

2. Hugh Capet. During the early reigns of this dynasty 
the actual dominions of the French king were of but small 
extent, a large part of the territory having been 
usurped by the ambitious nobles and held only by 
the feudal tie. The most important of these pro- 



French 
dominions. 



vinces were Brittany, in the northwest; Normandy, in the 
north ; Aquitaine, or Guienne {ghe-en'), and 
Anjou {ahn'joo), in the west; Gascony and Na- 



Provinces. 



varre, in the southwest; Provence (pro-vahns'), in the south- 
east; Burgundy and Champagne {shong-pahn'), in the east; 

Geographical Study, Map No. XII. 

What was the situation of: Francia (France)? Aquitania? Burgundy? Aus- 
tria? Neustria? Bavaria? Emirate op Cordova? Bulgaria? Bagdad? 

Where was the territory of: The Avars? Turks or Magyars? Who held the 
northern part of Africa? The territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the 
Euphrates River? What did the Eastern Empire embrace? 



880 



MedicBval History, 



and Flanders, in the northeast. The history of this period 
is mainly occupied with the wars which were waged to bring 




AXong. West 



long. East A. fromuIiOiiaoiL 8 



Geographical Study. 
What was the situation of : Normandy? Brittany? Picardy? Maine? Anjou? 

POITOU? GUIENNE? GaSCONY? LaNGUEDOC ? PROVENCE? DAUPHINY ? AUVERGNE ? 

Burgundy? Champagne? Lorraine? Alsace? Flanders? Netherlands? Savoy? 
Paris? Aix la Chapelle? Metz? Rheims? Troyes? Lyons? Avignon? Toulouse? Bor- 
deaux? Nantes? Orleans? Crecy? Calais? Rouen? Brest? 

about a consolidation of the kingdom. Hagh Capet was 
an active and prudent monarch; and, during 
his reign of nearly ten years, he succeeded in 
overcoming all opposition to his authority, and 



Character of 
Capet. 



in enlarging his dominions. At his death he left the throne 
to his son Kobert (996). 



The Oapetiaii Dynasty, 381 

3. Robert succeeded in annexing Burgundy to his do- 
minions. During this reign the year 1000 arrived, which, as 
the date of the millennium, had been very gener- 
ally predicted as the '' end of the world." * This 



Year looo. 



belief occasioned general neglect and idleness; and a dreadful 
famine and pestilence was the result, which swept away vast 
multitudes of people, and caused the most frightful miseries 
and crimes. The superstition and ignorance of the people, 
and the oppression and vices of the nobles, made this one of 
the darkest periods in human history. Robert died in 1031, 
leaving the throne to his son Henry. 

4. Henry I. This reign is noted for the repeated wars 
which Henry waged with the Duke of Normandy — William, 
afterward the Conqueror of England — who suc- 
cessfully defended his dominions against the at- 
tacks of the French king. Thus was produced 



Wars with 
Normandy. 



that aversion between the English and French monarchs 
that occasioned so many wars during the following reigns. 
The power of the Church was exercised during this reign to 
put a check to the unceasing warfare of the nobles, and to 
procure some respite for the unfortunate peasantry, so that 
they might cultivate the lands, and thus prevent famine 
and pestilence. This was effected by establishing what was 
called the Truce of God — a religious injunc- 
tion against all military operations, dueling, 



Truce of God. 



and other acts of violence, from Wednesday, at sunset, till 
sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and holy days. This 
regulation did much, eventually, to soften the ferocity of 

* " Toward the close of the tenth century, a false interpretation of a passage in 
the Gospels, according to which the end of the world and the second coming of 
Jesus Christ in Judea had been fixed for the year 1000, had struck all Christendom 
with stupor and affright. 'The end of the world being at hand,' were the opening 
words of all deeds and contracts : and the vanities of the world being forgotten in 
the near approach of the ' supreme and inevitable catastrophe,' every one was 
anxious to start for the Holy Land, in the hope of being present at the coming of 
the Saviour, and of finding there pardon for his sins, a peaceful death, and the sal- 
vation of the sonV—Lacroix's Military and Religious Life in the Middle Apes. 



382 Medicetal History. 

these terrible times. Henry was succeeded by his son Philip 

(1060). 

5. Philip I. and Louis VI. Philip's reign is noted for the 

coiKpiest of England by Duke William of Normandy (1066), 
and the preaching of the First Crusade (1095), 
an account of which is given further on (sec 



Chief events. 



page 121). Philip was succeeded by his son Louis (1108). 
This king, surnamed the Fat, was wise and ener- 
getic. He did important service to France by 



Louis the Fat. 



keeping the great vassals of the crown under control, and 
gave to the towns their first charters, thus relieving large 
numbers of the lower orders from the wretched condition of 
serfdom, in which they had been ke]:)t by the iron hand of 
the aristocracy. These early municipalities were called Com- 
munes, or commons (afterward the Third Estate), 
and consisted of citizens leagued together for 



Communes. 



mutual interest and defense. Louis VI. v/as succeeded by his 

son Louis (1137). 

6. Louis VII, by marrying Eleanor, became possessed of 

Guienne and Poitou {pwah-too'); but during the expedition 
which he undertook to the Holy Land (see page 
123), and in which he was accompanied by his 



queen, he was so provoked by the freedom and levity of her 
conduct that he divorced her, and thus lost her great posses- 
sions. These he had the mortification of seeing annexed to 
the dominions of Henry, Duke of Normandy, 
Count of Anjou and Maine, and afterward king 



Loss of territory. 



of England (Henry XL), whom Eleanor married after her 
divorce from the French king. In this way the English 
monarch came into possession of more extensive territories in 
France than those of the French king himself. Louis was 
succeeded by his son Philip (1180). 

7. Philip II. {Augustus). During this reign the authority 
of the monarch was more generally acknowledged than it had 
been since the accession of Hugh Capet, and the country 



Tlic Capctiaa Dyitastfj. 



383 



Power of the 
king. 



became more united and powerful. This was partly due to 

tiie great ability and prudence of Philip, who 

knew how to make himself respected and feared. 

He engaged in the Third Crusade with Eichard I. 

of England; but, becoming jealous of the English monarch's 

fame, he deserted him, and, returning home, j — 

basely plotted I 
with llichard's brother 
John to seize his domin- 
ions. Failing in this, 
he afterward obtained 
the English provinces in 
France by means of the 
wickedness and cowardice 
of John (1204). He thus 
added to his dominions 
Normandy, Maine, An- 
jou, Poitou, and Lou- 
vain ; and 
gradually ex- 
tended his . 

sway to the Pyrenees. 
He greatly improved the 
discipline of the army, 
encouraged learning, and 
walled and paved Paris 
and several other towns. 
After a reign of forty-three years, he left his kinajdom in a 
state of tranquillity to his son Louis (1223). 

8. This reign is memorable for the rise of the Al-bi-gen'- 
ses, a numerous sect of dissenters from the Catholic Church, 
who became prominent at the commencement of 
the thirteenth century, in Languedoc {lan'glie- 
doc), and were supported by Raymond VL, Count of that 
province, They received their name from Albigeois [al-he- 




Measures of Ihe 

king. 



Orxjsadixg Knight. 



Albigenses. 



384 Mediceval History. 

zhwah), the district in which they first appeared. During 
the reign of Phihp Augustus (1209), Pope Innocent III. 
caused a crusade to be preached against them, excommuni- 
cating both them and Count Raymond; and, in the war which 
ensued, many of their towns were taken, and the most dread- 
ful massacres perpetrated. Raymond was at last obliged to 
submit to the authority of the Pope. During the war Simon 
de Montfort, the elder,* took an active part against the Al- 
bigenses, and was conspicuous for his cruelty and perfidy. 
He was killed at the siege of Toulouse (1218). 

9. Louis VIII. was a feeble monarch, but the wise policy of 
his father had given such an impulse to affairs, that France 
continued to be triumphant over the English, 
who, during the reign of Henry IH., made re- 



English attacks. 



War against the 
Albigenses. 



peated attacks upon the French territories (see page 70). 
Another crusade was undertaken against the Al- 
bigenses by Louis Vni. by request of the Pope. 
With a large army he laid siege to Avignon {ali- 
ven'yong), but was kept so long under its walls that 20,000 
men perished by disease and famine; and Louis himself died 
a short time after he had received the submission of the con- 
quered inhabitants (1226). 

10. Louis IX. (Saint Louis), son and successor of Louis 
Vin., was but a youth at the time of his accession, and the 
government was administered by his mother, Blanche of Cas- 
tile {has-teeV), during whose regency the war against the Al- 

-j l)igenses was closed by the complete submission 

Close of the ^f Couut Ravmoud, and the cession, by formal 

war. I V ' ^ ^ 

treaty, of Languedoc to the crown of France 



(1229). The remnant of this people emigrated to the east, 
and are lost sight of in history a century later. 
Louis, though unmstructed m letters, had im- 



King'scharacter. 



bibed the most excellent princi])les of conduct from his 

* Father of the famous Earl of Leicester, who founded the English llouse of 
pommons. (See page 358.) 



The Capetian Dynasty. 385 

mother, and he strictly observed them after he attained the 
age of majority. He engaged in a crusade (1249) against the 
sultan of Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and 
ransomed by his subjects for an immense sum 



Other events. 



($1,500,000). Keturning after an absence of five years, he 
ruled with so much candor and moderation, and with such a 
conscientious regard for justice and rectitude, that he was 
universally esteemed, and was enabled to promote the true 
progress and happiness of his people. In another crusade, 
undertaken to check the ^lohammedans in Syria, he died 
while on his way thither, near Tunis (1270). Some years 
after his death, he was canonized by Pope Boniface VIII.* 

11. Philip III, called tlio Hardy (because his constitution 
had proved strong enough to resist the pestilence that carried 
oil his father), continued the war against the Moors; and, 
with tilt aid of his uncle, Charles of Anjou, king 
of Sicily, reduced the king of Tunis to submis- 
sion. Charles, who had but recently acquired 



War against 
Tunis. 



possession of Sicily, became very odious to the people by his 
arbitrary government and the excesses of his followers; and 
this discontent was encouraged by Peter, king of Aragon,f 
who claimed the island. The result was that on Easter-day 
(1282), when the church-bells sounded for vespers, the Sicil- 
ians rushed on all the French inhabitants they i 

met, and massacred them without mercy. About L^'^_^'^ 
8000 perished by this dreadful event, which is known in his- 
tory as the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Peter of Ara- 

*"The character of St. Louis is one of the noblest that occurs in modern his 
tory. He possessed all the virtues of his age, untarnished by its vices; he was 
brave without cruelty or violence, pious without bigotry or weakness. Although 
more the hero of the legend than of romance, he conamands our admiration by his 
rare disinterestedness, his bold attempt to rule his actions as a monarch by the 
rigid maxims of private honor, and by the great good sense that tempered his de- 
votion, and that never allowed him to sacrifice humanity or justice to the interests 
even of that Church which he revered."— Cro^ye's HiMory of France. 

t Aragon was at this time an important kingdom in the northeastern part of 
Spain ; and Peter rested his claim to Sicily on his marriage with Constance, daugh- 
ter of a previous Iring of that island, 



386 Mediceval History. 

gon, by this means, succeeded in expelling Charles of Anjou 
from Sicily; and Philip III., taking up the cause of his uncle, 
made an unsuccessful invasion of Aragon, and died a short 
time afterward of a fever, resulting from disappointment and 
fatigue (1385). 

12. Philip IV. {le Bel — the Fair) succeeded at the age of 
seventeen. His reign is one of the most important in French 
history. He carried on a war of seven years 
with Edward I. of England, in order to obtain 
Guienne; but finally consented to a treaty relm- 



War with 
England. 



quishing his claims to that duchy. He obtained possession 
of Flanders, but governed it so oppressively that the people 
(called Flemings) rose in revolt and massacred the French to 
the number of 3000. Philip endeavored to re- 
duce the Flemings to submission, but this brave 



Flemish war. 



people successfully defended their liberties against his assaults. 
The Flemings were, at this j^eriod, greatly distinguished for 
tneir skill in weaving and in other industrial arts. One of 



Knights 
Templars. 



the most remarkable events of this reign was the 
suppression of the famous order of Kniglits Tem- 
plars. Philip's measures were harsh and sum- 
mary. He ordered all the Templars in France to be arrested 
on the same day; and the Grand Master and others, having 
been condemned for sacrilege and immorality, w^ere burnt to 
death.* This order of knights was also prosecuted and con- 
demned in other parts of Europe, f Philip died in 1314. 

* The king, Philip IV., ordered two Templars, one of them the Grand Master, to 
be burned. "It was probably owing to the last words of the Master — 'God will 
avenge our death '—that there arose a popular rumor that the Master, at his death, 
had cited the Pope and the king to appear with him, the former at the end of forty 
days, and the latter within a year, before the judgment-seat of God. Events gave 
a sanction to the legend;" for both Clement and Philip actually died within the 
time named. 

t This celebrated religious and military order was founded at Jerusalem in the 
beginning of the twelfth century, for the protection of the Holy Sepulcher, and the 
pilgrims who journeyed thither. It afterward spread all over Europe, and became 
noted for its vast possessions. It was suppressed in England by Edward II. (1309), 
|ind the general council that met at Vienna in 1311, pronounced a decree annulling 



The Capetian Dynasty, 387 

13. The most important act in the reign of Philip was his 
creation of the Third Edate {Tiers Eiat). Up to this time 
there had been only two recognized orders in 
France, the nobles and the clergy. In 1302, 



Third Estate. 



however, Philip being then at the height of his quarrel with 
the Pope, and feeling his need of the suppori of the whole 
people of France, permitted the burghers, or common people, 
to send representatives to the States-General which he had 
called. In this general council, these representatives sat on 
equal terms with those of the nobles and the clergy; and thus 
one of the most despotic kings of France was the means of 
bringing about a great political advance in the condition of 
the people. From that time three estates were known m 
France: the nobles, the clergy, and the people, or, as the 
latter were called, the TJiird Estate. 

14. Louis X., surnamed Ilutin (disorder, or tumult), 
from the tumultuous conduct of the nobles and clergy, at- 
tempted to regain from Louis the powers and 
privileges of which they had been deprived by his 
artful and despotic father. He yielded to most 



Nobles and 
Clergy. 



of their demands, and issued an ordinance enfranchising the 
serfs within the royal domains. During his short reign, 
he was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois 
{val-wali'), who employed it to destroy Marigny 
(mah-reen^ye), the former prime minister of Philip 



Mangny. 



the Fair; and this distinguished man was condemned and 
put to death upon a malicious and absurd charge of sorcery. 
On the death of the king (1316), the government was admin- 
istered by his brother Philip, as regent; and, the infant son 
of Louis X. having died, Philip became king (1317). 

and abolishing the order, and bestowed its privileges on the Knights ol" St. John. 
At the time of its suppression in France, the number of the knights in that country 
was about 15,000. Their treasury contained 1.50,000 gold florins, besides large quan 
titles of silver, precious stones, rich vases, etc. It is believed by many that Philip's 
persecution was instigated by the desix-e to obtain tliis vast hoard in order to satisfy 
his cupidity. 



888 Medicei^al History, 

15. Philip V. {le Long — the Tall) assembled the States- 
General to pronounce upon his right to the throne, which 
was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. ; and a decree was 
issued declaring that females are incapable of inheriting the 
crown of France. This decree, being based, as it 
was said, upon tlie barbarous code of the Salian 



Salic law- 



Franks, was called the SaVic Laiu. During this reign, 
France was the scene of dreadful religious persecutions, par- 
ticularly of the Jews, who were put to death 
in Tou-raine' with the most dreadful barbarity. 



Jews. 



Philip, after a brief reign of five years, was succeeded by his 
brother Charles (1322). 

16. Charles IV. became king by the operation of the Salic 
law, for Phihp V. had left daughters but no sons. His reign 

\ 1 is almost a blank, being only noted for his inva- 

_J sion of Guienne, to which he was invited by the 



troubles of Edward II. of England. It was in France that 
the wicked Queen Isabella, sister of Charles IV., plotted with 
Mortimer for the destruction of her unfortunate husband. 
Charles afterward restored Guienne to Edward 
III. On the death of Charles without male 
heirs (1328), the direct line became extinct, and 



End of the 
Valofs. 



Philip of Valois, nephew of Philip the Fair, succeeded to 
the throne. This introduces a collateral line of kings, called 
the Branch of Valois. 

State of Society during the Capetian Period. 

17. The most important changes which took place in 
France during the Capetian period were the firm establish- 
ment of the monarchy and the elevation of the 
common people. A result of this was the slow 



Changes. 



decay of feudalism. Attacked from above by the king and 
from below by the people, it yielded gradually in the contest.* 

* " The introduction of standing armies was unquestionably the most important 
political change in the history of modern Em-ope. When introduced in one nation 



The Capetian Dynasty. 



389 



A new power rose into prominence during this period — the 

power of the pco])le. Tlie working-man became a soldier, 

and the tradesmen of the cities, whose friendship 

the king had found useful to him in his struggle 

with the lords, were granted special charters, 

which protected them in their industries. At first the king 



Power of the 
people. 



left to each city the conduct of its affairs, being satisfied with 
appointing a royal superintendent. This was followed by 




Ramparts op a Town in the Middle Ages. 



other claims, from time to time, till, finally, each man, in- 
stead of boasting as before that he was the inhabitant of a 
particular city, came to pride himself upon being the king's 
yeoman. 

18. The purchase of their freedom by the serfs, after it 
had begun, went on with great rapidity. A large middle 



all were obliged to follow the example. This at once made it impossible to continue 
the system of government which prevailed everywhere during the IMiddle Ages. 
On the Continent it led to despotic government, in England to the supremacy of 
Parliament." — Wilberforce^s Church and the Empires. 



390 Mediwval History. 

class of citizens was thus formed, the existence of which sup- 
phed a condition favorable to the existence of 
trade and commerce. The danger, however, 



which attended all communication between different parts of 
the country checked their growth. Eobbery and crime on 
the public highway were common, and only in the immediate 
neighborhood of towns and cities was property secure. This 
state of alfairs was gradually amended by strict laws passed 
by the king as his power increased. The estab- 
lishment also of a uniform currency, and a system 
of regulations for the government of the different kinds of 
trades which existed, aided greatly in making them permanent. 
19. Trade centers soon came to be established, which, by 
means of annual fairs, attracted merchants from all parts of 
Europe. The wines of southern France found a 
ready market in England and the Netherlands, 



Trade centers. 



and were exchanged in Spain for arms, and leather fabi-ics of 
many kinds. The fisheries of the southern ports also yielded 
a large revenue. Some of the products intro- 
duced by the Crusaders gave rise to entirely new 



Industries. 



industries. Among these were the glass of Tyre and the 
tissues of Damascus. The use of flax and silk, and the em- 
ployment of windmills, is also ascribed to them; and the intro- 
duction of the sugar-cane, the plum-tree, as well as the culti- 
vation of the mulberry. Enameling of various kinds, seal- 
engraving, and the art of the goldsmith had also reached a 
high degree of perfection. 

20. In all parts of France, at the end of this period, schools 
existed in connection with the Church. There was, how- 
ever, a great want of books. Five universities 
afforded a hisfher education, of which the most 



Education. 



noted was that of Paris, the independence of which was recog- 
nized by Philip Augustus in 1203. This was attended by 
between 15,000 and 20,000 students. Latin was the lan- 
guage employed in instruction, and all civilized countries 



The Capetian Dynasty. 391 

sent students to be educiited there. In 1250 Robert de Sor- 
bon, chaplain of Louis IX., founded a school of theology, 
afterward called the Sorbonne {aor-bon'). 

21. Down to the thirteenth century, people of the lower 
classes were not permitted to wear the dress or ornaments 
peculiar to the nobility. An edict of Philip the 
Fair prescribes minutely the number and cost of 



Dress. 



the dresses the tradeswomen may wear. The dress of the 
villain consisted of a blouse of cloth or skin, fastened at the 
waist by a leather belt, a mantle of woolen stuff, trousers of 
the same, and shoes or large boots. Fastened to his belt was 
a wallet or purse, and a sheath for his knife. Notwithstand- 
ing the hard condition of the laboring classes, they had many 
holidays, nearly all the festival days of the Church 
being devoted partly to amusement. On these 



Holidays. 



occasions they dnink, sang, danced, practiced archery, played 
athletic games, and passed most of the day in merriment. 
Nearly all the occupations now pursued in the rural districts 
were in use in the earliest times. 

22. At this time the French language began to take defi- 
nite form, and the laws which heretofore had been written in 
Latin now were issued in French. The literature 
of the period embraces history, poetry, and ro- 
mance. In the middle and north of France the 
Trouveres {troo-vare'), like the Troubadours* of the south, 

produced a series of poems that became models " 

for other countries. Among the eminent men '°"''^'^^' 

of this period may be mentioned Ab'el-ard (1079-1142), illus- 
trious for his genius as a philosopher and lectui 
er; St. Bernard (1091-1153), the famous preacher 



Language and 
literature. 



of the Second Crusade, and celebrated not only for his piety 

* The Troubadours were accompanied in their wanderings by minstrels and 
jugglers, the latter displaying their skill at the close of the poem or recitation. 
Sometimes the minstrels were formed Into an orchestra, to the music of which 
dancing tock place. 



892 MedicBi^al History. 

but for his extensive learning; Jelian de Joinville (1223-1317), 
who wrote a biography of St. Louis, noted for its graphic de- 
scription of all the minute events of that famous reign; and 
the Abbe Suger {soo-zlia') (1085-1152), the most eminent of 
politicians during the reign of Louis VI. and Louis VIL 



SECTION IL 
Beakch of Valois. 



23. Philip VI. The claim set up by Edward III. of Eng- 
land to the throne of France, in opposition to the right of 
Philip of Valois, has already been referred to. 
The victories gained by Edward in the war that 



English claim. 



followed did not give him the object of his desires; and, a 
truce being agreed on, he returned to England. 
Dau'phiny was about this time ceded to the grand- 



Dauphiny. 



son of Philip, afterward King Charles V,, and later was an- 
nexed to France. The king's eldest son there- 
after bore the title of Dauplivi. The Black 



Plague, 



Plague raged throughout France during this reign, and car- 
ried off vast multitudes of people — 50,000 in Paris alone.* 
Philip was succeeded by his son John (1350). 

Geographical Study, Maps Nos. XIII. and XTV. 
What was the extent of the Royal Domain in 987 ? What in 1328 ? VHiat did it 
embrace at the latter date? What were the limits of Aquitaine at the former date? 
What at the latter? Mention the chief provinces at the time of Hugh the Great? 
At the time of Valois? What was the situation of: Bruges? Ghent? Koln 
(Cologne)? Mainz? Strasburg? Basel? Metz? Nancy? Chalons? Lyons? Avignon? 
Aries? Narbonne? Bayonne? Poitiers? Harfleur? Rouen? Soissons? Rheims? 
Amiens? Boulogne? Calais? 

* " Many died in the streets; others were left alone in their houses— but the fact 
of their death was known by the smell. Often, husband and wife, son and father, 
were laid on the same bier. Large ditches had been dug, in which the corpses were 
heaped by hundreds, like bales in a ship's hold. Every one carried in his hand 
strong-smelling herbs. The air stank with the dead and dying, or with infectious 
drugs. Alas! ho-w many fine hotses remained empty I How many fortunes with- 



Nos. 13 & 14. 




Branch of Valois. 



393 



24. John {U Bon — the Good). During this reign the Eng- 
lish, under the Black Prince, again invaded France, and the 
memorable battle of Poitiers was fought, in which 
John was taken prisoner, and no less than 2500 
of the Fi-ench nobility and chivalry were slain. 



Poitiers. 



The king 

being carried to England, his eldest son, Charles, became 
regent, and during his administration the people, under Mar- 
cel', head of the munici^oality of Paris, made a desperate strug- 
gle to curb the despotic power of the monarch and obtain a 




Popular 
insurrection. 



Cannon of the Fourteenth Century. 

share in the government. The States-Greneral were assembled, 
and granted the privileges demanded; but these 
being afterward annulled, an insurrection broke 

out which raged for some time, but was term in- 

ated by the death of Marcel, and the defeat of the popular 
cause. Cannon commenced to be used about this time. 

25. At the same time a frightful insurrection of the i^eas- 
antry burst forth, caused by the hopeless misery m which 

out heirs! How many lovely ladies, how many amiable young persons, dined in the 
morning with their friends, who, when evening came, supped with their ancestors!" 
—Boccaccio. 

This terrible epidemic broke out in China, and carried off. it is said, twenty -four 
millions of the inhabitants. It appeared in Italy in 1346, and spread thence into 
France, Spain, Germany, and England, also, later, into Sweden and Norway; and, 
ia 1351, it frightfully desolated Russia and Poland. 



894 MedicEval History. 

they had been so long kept by the nobles. This revolt is 
called the Jacquerie {zhak'er-e), from Jacques 
Bonhomme {zhak bon-om'), the name derisively 



Jacquerie. 



applied to a French peasant. The feudal castles were sacked 
and destroyed by the insurgents, and their inmates, of every 
age and sex, put to death with shocking barbarity. Being at 
last defeated in an attack upon one of the towns, the peasants 
were hunted down on all sides like wild beasts, and massacred 
by thousands; so that some of the rural districts were almost 
depopulated, and presented a ghastly scene of ruin and deso- 
lation (1358).* 

26. In the mean time, John, being a prisoner in England, 
in order to obtain his release, consented to surrender a large 
part of his territories; but to this the States- 
General would not submit; and Edward III. 



John. 



again invaded France, but finally made peace, consenting to 
release John upon more reasonable terms. The latter, after 
four years' captivity, finally returned to his kingdom, and 
was greeted with universal transports of joy and gratitude by 
his people; but his son Louis, who had been delivered to the 
king of England as a hostage, having escaped, John was so 
conscientious that he surrendered himself again to his English 
captors, and died a short time after his arrival in England 
(1364). He had previously (1363) given to his 
favorite son Philip the duchy of Burgundy in 



Burgundy, 



reward for his bravery at Poitiers; and thus was founded that 



* " Not only did the peasants butcher their lords, but they tried to exterminate the 
families of their lords, murdering their heirs. And then would these savages tuck 
out themselves and their wives in rich habiliments, and bedeck themselves with 
glittering but bloody spoils. Yet were they not so savage as not to march with a 
kind of order, under banners, and led by a captam chosen from among themselves. 
a crafty peasant, called Guillaume Callet. These bands consisted mostly of the 
meaner sort, with a few rich burgesses and others. ' When they were asked,' says 
Froissart, ' for what reason they acted so wickedly, they replied, they knew not. but 
they did so because they saw others do it; and they thought by this means they 
should destroy all the nobles and gentlemen in the world.' "—MicheleVs Histonj of 
Prance. 



B I audi of Valols. 395 

famous ducal line of Burgundy whicli continued more than a 
century, and played so important a part in French history. 

27. Charles V., surnamed the Wise, succeeded his father, 
and, by means of his prudent measures, did much to restore 
peace and prosperity to his kingdom. He was himself of an 
unwarlike disposition, being fond of study, and having a 
talent for statesmanship rather than for the conduct of mili- 
tary affairs. He raised to the office of Constable of France 
the famous Du Guesclin {ga-klang'), one of the 
greatest generals of his age. Although defeated 



Du Guesclin. 



and taken prisoner in the battle of Nav-ar-re'te by the Black 
Prince, Du Guesclin, after the death of that great leader, 
pursued an almost uninterrupted career of victory against the 
English, depriving them of nearly all their possessions in 

France. Charles founded the Royal Library at i — 

Paris, and was a generous patron of literature I °^^' ' '°'^' 

and art. He died in 1380, two months after the death of the 
Constable Du Guesclin. 

28. Charles YI, son and successor of Charles V., was about 
twelve years of age at his father's death; and accordingly his 
uncle, the Duke of Anjou, was made regent. 
Disturbances were occasioned by the efforts of 



Regency. 



the people to release themselves from the unjust and oppres- 
sive taxes which had been imposed by Philip the Fair and 
his successors; and at Paris an insurrection occurred, which 
was with much difficulty subdued. An expedition was under- 
taken to reduce the Flemings, who had revolted 
against their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders; 



Flemings. 



and the terrible battle of Rosebecque {rose'bek) was fought, 
in which the celebrated Flemish leader Philip Van Artevelde 
{ar'te-veld) was defeated and slain, and no less than 25,000 
of the brave Flemings perished (1382). The French king 
himself was present in this battle, but his army was com- 
manded by Oliver Clisson (klees'song), Constable of France, 
a man of great talents and distinction, This great victory 



396 



MedicBval History. 



strengthened the power of the king; and the French towns, 
which had made resistance to the rojal exactions, being 
obliged to submit, all their citizens who had been prominent 
in the popular movement were put to death without mercy. 
In Paris alone 300 were led to the scaffold, martyrs to the 
cause of popular freedom (1382). 

29. Some years after this, Charles VI. became afiiicted 
with insanity, from which he never entirely recovered; and 
while France, in consequence of this calamity, was a prey to 
every species of disorder, Henry V. invaded it, 
took Har'fleur, and penetrated into the country. 



Harfleur. 



On his retreat, he was sur- 
prised at Agincourt; but, 
though obliged to give bat- 
tle at great disadvantage, he 
gained a .decided victory 
(1415). This was followed 
by the taking of Rouen and 
the conquest of Normandy; 

when, finally, the treaty of fortified Gate op a French Town" 

Troyes was made, according 




Middle Ages. 



Treaty of 
Troyes, 



to which Henry married Catharine, daughter of 
Charles VI., and was, on the death of the latter, 
to become king of France (1420). This shame- 
ful treaty was ratified by the States-General, but was never 
carried into effect, for Henry died some months before the 
death of Charles VI. (1422). 

30. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, was crowned 
at Poitiers; but Henry VI. of England had already been pro- 
claimed king of France, in accordance with the treaty of 
Troyes. The Duke of Bedford, the English regent, gained a 
great victory over the army of Charles, consisting 
partly of Scotch and other auxiliaries (1424). 
This dreadful disaster to Charles was followed 



Defeat of 
Charles. 



(1428) by the siege of Or'leans, the last stronghold of his 



Branch of Valois. 



397 



party, while no hope was entertained by the French of being 
able to repel its assailants. The deliverance of Charles was, 
however, effected by one of the most extraor- 
dinary occurrences recorded m history. Joan of 



Arc, a simple peasant girl, had been told of a prophecy, to the 
effect that France could be delivered from its enemies only by 

a virgin; and she 
became impressed 
with the idea that 
to her had been 
divinely commit- 
ted the task of ef- 
fecting this great 
object. She also 
said she heard 
voices that told 
her this. She soon 
induced others to 
believe in the 
truth of her mis- 
sion, among them 
the king and his 
chief officers, and 
was admitted into 
Orleans, arrayed 
in armor, and 
provided with a 
train of attend- 
ants (1429). 

31. Under her leadership, the French attacked the English 
with renewed courage, and soon compelled them to raise the 
siege. She next urged the king to march to 
Rheims (reemz), in order to assume the crown of 
his ancestors according to the accustomed rites; 




Cathedral of Rheims— (Completed ik the Fifteenth 
Century). 



French 
successes. 



and, partly under her leadership, the French, after several vie- 



398 



Medicexal History, 



torious battles, reached the city, which the Enghsh were com- 
pelled to surrender; and the king was crowned in the great 
cathedral (1429). Joan then declared her mission ended, and 
wished to be dismissed; but her services being still demanded, 
she remained in the army; and a short time afterward fell into 
the power of the English, and was burnt to death 
at Rouen on a charge of sorcery (1431). * Nothing, 



Fate of Joan. 



however, was gained by the English from this cruel execution 
of the " Maid of Orleans;" for they continued to 
suffer defeat until they finally lost all their French 
possessions except Calais; while the Duke of Bur- 



Defeat of the 

English. 



Character. 



gundy, who had previously sup- 
ported them, became reconciled 
to Charles VII. The latter reigned 
till his death (1461). 

32. Louis XL, who succeeded 
his father, has been called the Ti- 
berius of Fi'mice on account of his 
deceitf ulness and cru- 
elty. The last years 
of his father's life had been em- 
bittered by his unnatural conduct, 
for Louis was repeatedly 
plotting against him. With such 
terror was the king inspired on this account, that he was even 
afraid to take food lest he might be poisoned; and, it is said, 
he died for want of sustenance. The great object which the 
new king set about to accomplish was the enlargement of the 
royal authority by weakening the great feudal vassals. This 




found Feudal Castle in France in the 
Fifteenth Century. 



* " When she felt the flames rising around her, she besought the priest who at- 
tended her to leave her. The Cardinal of Winchester, and even the Bishop of Beau- 
vais. who had been her bitterest enem.y, could not conceal their emotion. After her 
death two of the judges who had condemned her exclaimed, ' Would that our souls 
were where we believe hers is! ' and Fressart, the secretary of Henry VI., said, as 
he left the place of execution, ' We are all lost; we have burned a s^intl ' ^''—Qui^oV^ 
History of France, 



Branch of Valois. 399 



League of the 
Public Good. 



soon excited their determined resistance; and a coalition was 
formed against liim, called the League of the 
Puhlio Good (1465), of which the ruling spirit 
was Charles the Bold, afterward Duke of Bur- 
gundy. A war ensued, in which Louis was defeated, and 
thus was compelled to grant the concessions demanded by the 
nobles. These, however, he afterward revoked, and, one by 
one, at last succeeded in reducing the vassals to submission. 

33. The greater part of this reign is occupied with dark 
intrigues against his enemies, particularly against Charles 
the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. The latter was 
utterly defeated, in two great battles, by the 
Swiss, whose country he had invaded; and the 



Charles the 
Bold. 



next year he suffered anothor defeat from the Duke of Lor- 
raine', at Nan'cy, where he was slain (1477). Louis took 
advantage of these circumstances to re-annex Burgundy to his 
dominions. The death of Charles the Bold ended the long 
resistance of the great French vassals to the central power of 
the monarchy. Mary of Burgundy, the daughter 
and heiress of Charles the Bold, still remained 
mistress of Flanders, and Louis desired to marry 



Mary of 
Burgundy. 



her to the Dauphin (the eldest son of the kina); but she 
refused her consent, and accepted the hand of Maximil'ian, 
son of the Emperor of Germany, and Archduke of Austria 
(1477). This marriage increased the influence of the house 
of Austria, and led to a rivalry between France and the 
empire which lasted nearly two centuries. As Louis grew 
old, he became very superstitious and cruel; 
and, at last, conscious of being universally ab- 
horred, he shut himself up in a castle, which he kept con- 
stantly defended by armed troops. His death occurred in 
1483.* 



* " As he felt his disorder increasing, he shut himself up in a palace near Tours, 
to hide from the world the knowledge of his decline. His solitude was, like that of 
Tiberius at Capreae. full of terror and suspicion, and deep consciousness of uuiver- 



Death of Louis. 



400 MedicBval History. 

34. Charles VIII. was a mere boy on tlie death of his 
father, and a meeting of the States-General was called to 
decide upon his guardiansliip. In this meeting the Third 
Estate made an unsuccessful attempt to obtain 
some influence in the government. By the mar- 



Third Estate. 



riage of Anne, Duchess of Brittany, Charles annexed that 
country to France, and thus destroyed the last 
stronghold of feudal power. The French also 
for a time obtained Nai)les by the enforced abdi- 



Anne of 
Brittany. 



cation of Alfonso II. of Aragon (1495); and Charles gained 
a victory over the allied forces of Venice, Milan, 
and other states of northern Italy; but these suc- 



Naples. 



cesses were in the end fruitless, and Charles afterward gave 
himself up to vicious excesses, which ruined his health. His 
death occurred in 1498. His reign was the last of the house 
of Valois, and marks the close of the Middle Ages. Louis, 
Duke of Orleans, succeeded to the French throne. 

State of Society during the Valois Pekiod. 

35. France was virtually an absolute monarchy, unlike 

England, in which the Commons represented in Parliament 

exercised considerable control over the royal 

power. In the States-General of France — the 



Government. 



grand council of the nation— there was a representation of 
the three orders, the nobles, the clergy, and the Commons, 
the latter being called the Tiers Etat (Third Estate). This 

sal hatred. All ranks, he well knew, had their several injuries to remember: the 
clergy, whose liberties he had sacrificed to the See of Rome; the princes, whose 
blood he had poured upon the scaffold; the pariiament, whose course of justice he 
had turned aside; the commons, who groaned under his extortions, and were 
plundered by his soldiery. The palace, fenced with portcullises and spikes of iron, 
was guarded by archers and crossbow-men, who shot at any that approached by 
night. Few entered his den ; but to them he showed himself in magnificent ap- 
parel, contrary to his former custom, hoping thus to disguise the change of his 
meager body. He distrusted his friends and kindred, his daughter and his son, the 
last of whom he had not suffered even to read or write, lest he should too soon 
become his rival. No man ever so much feared death, to avert which he stooped to 
every meanness, and sought every remedy."— -ffaZtoJii's Middle Ages. 



r 



Branch of Valois. 401 



assembly, however, did not regularly meet, and was entirely 
subordinate to the royal authority. The first convocation 
of this body took place during the reign of Philip 
IV. (1302), this event servhig to mark the pre- 



Tiers Etat. 



vailing influence of civil institutions over the military forms 
of feudalism. 

36. In the assembly of 1357, the Third Estate came into 
conflict with the royal authority; and, at every subsequent 
convention, the proceedings showed a spirit of 
resistance to the corruptions and tyranny of the 
court, from which resulted measures of great 



Contests with 
the Commons. 



advantage to the people. The States-General of 1484 de- 
manded that these assemblies should be called at regular 
periods, and that taxes should be levied equally upon all 
classes. The effect of these measures, however, was not last- 
ing; the king only convoked the States-General when he 
pleased, and the nobles and clergy together could always out- 
vote the Commons. Hence the people, during the troubled 
period of the English wars, made but little improvement in 
their political condition. 

37. At the opening of the States-General, it was the custom 
for the king to be present, and to make a short speech, after 
which the Chancellor of France explained at 
length the purposes of the session. The nobles 



States-General. 



and clergy remained seated and covered, while the Com- 
mons stood with bare heads. After a reply to the Chancellor, 
from the president of each order, the three orders retired to 
their several rooms. When the deliberations were complete, 
they again convened, and presented to the king their wishes, 
demands, or complaints, in the form of suggestions. The 
king made no reply; and the assembly, after voting a pecu- 
niary tax, separated. Thus it will be seen that the States- 
General was not a legislative body, all laws being made by 
the king, who could listen or not to the demands of his 
people. 



402 MedlcBval History. 

38. Schools scarcely existed at this time. Scholars wan- 
dered about, giTiiig instruction to such pupils as they could 
collect. The methods of teaching were of the 



Education. 



rudest description, and the discipline was brutal 
in the extreme. The University of Paris was one of the most 
noted seats of learning in the world, being attended by stu- 
dents from all parts of Europe. Astrology was a favorite 
science at this period, the influence of the stars 
upon human affairs being almost universally be- 



Learning. 



lieved. The Royal Library of Paris was founded by Charles 
the Wise, who was a generous patron of litera- 
ture and art. The fine arts had made little or 



no progress beyond the barbarism of the dark ages. 

39. The drama was confined to the Mysteries and Morali- 
ties, the former representing incidents in sacred history. In 
1385, at the marriage of Charles VI. and Isabel 
of Bavaria, a play was acted before the royal pair. 



The drama. 



entitled '' The History of the Death of our Saviour," which 
lasted eight days, having eighty-seven characters, the chief of 
whom was St. John. A similar Passion Play is still per- 
formed in Bavaria. In 1402, the king granted letters-patent 
to some of the citizens of Paris to form an association to rep- 
resent the Mystery of the Passion. This is the origin of the 
modern tragedy in France; as the performance of the Moral- 
ities or Moral Plays is of the comedy. - 

40. At the siege of Arras, in 1414, use was made for the 
first time of muskets, then called liand-cannons. Playing- 
cards were improved, games of cards having been introduced 
to amuse the unfortunate Charles VI. during his 
lucid intervals. The fissures on the cards were 



Inventions. 



the same as now used. The hearts signified the churchmen; 
the spades (pike-heads), the nobles or military; the diamonds 
(tiles), the working-class; and the clubs (clover-leaves), the 
peasantry. About 1420, painting in oils was introduced, before 
which time all pictures were in water-colors. Louis XI. 



Branch of Valois. 409 

favored trade and commerce of every kind, encouraged the 
new art of printing, endowed a school of medi- 
cine at Paris, and inaugurated a postal system. 



commerce. 



An attempt was also nuide to light the streets of the capital. 
41. Various changes occurred in the style of dress during 
this period. Charles VII. revived the fashion of long and 
loose garments; but, during the reign of Louis 
XI., a total revolution took place, the ladies lay- 



Costume. 



ing aside their long trains and sleeves, and assuming in their 
place broad borders of fur, velvet, or silk. In the reign of 
Charles VI. the head-dress was of extraordinary breadth; 
subsequently it was very high — sometimes more than three 
feet. Peaked shoes of great length were also a singular fea- 
ture of the costume. 

42. The dwellings of the rich were sometimes furnished 
with great splendor. We read of the " fine linen of Rheims," 
which was sold at an extravagant price; and 
of fabrics made of '^silk and silver tissue." 



Rich carpets and tapestry, and other articles of furniture 
spoken of, give evidence that means were not wanting for 
luxurious living and for the gratification of expensive tastes. 
Stone was used in constructing the basements of houses, the 
upper portions being constructed of wood. In the richer 
kind of houses, the front was adorned with projecting cor- 
ner-posts, covered with carvings of figures — foliage, animals, 
, heads of angels, etc. The castle had its cellar, wine-vault, 

I™ bakery, fruitery, laundry, special rooms for glass, salt, furs, 
0,nd tapestry; while near the guard-room and beyond were the 
porters' lodges and various other buildings, used by servants 
and retainers. 
43. During this period, Paris was often the scene of dread- 
ful tumult; and at times the mortality was fearful. In 
11438, there were 45,000 deaths in the city. Wolves 
iprowled through the streets, and often carried off 



[children. Famine and pestilence were frequent visitants and 



404 



Mediceval History. 



committed dreadful ravages. In 1466, the malefactors and 
vagrants of all countries were invited to come to the city, in 
order to fill up the broken ranks of the population. At the 
close of the reign of Louis XL, the city probably contained 
about 300,000 inhabitants.* 

44. The most noted writers of the time are Jean Froissart 
(1337-1410), who wrote the Chro7i- 

icles, or annals of 

France during the 



Noted writers. 



greater part of the fourteenth 
century; and Philippe de Comines 
(1445-1509), for a time the favor- 
ite of Charles the Bold. He wrote 
the Memoires, giving a complete 
view of the affairs of his time, in- 
cluding a vivid picture of the 
character of Louis XL To these 
should be added Jean de Gerson 
(zhdr-song) (1363-1429), surnamed 
**The most Christian Doctor," 
who became Chancellor of the Uni- 
versity of Paris. He wrote a treat- 
ise On the Co7isolation of Theology, and is supposed by some 
to have been the author of the celebrated religious work 
entitled The Imitation of Christ, which is usually ascribed to 
Thomas a Kempis. \ 




FROISSAR'n 



* The following is a description of scenes in Paris during this period: "At the 
eai-ly da\/n the death-criers, persons clothed in black, and announcing themselves 
by the tinkling of small bells, gave notice of the death of such persons as had died 
during the night, and called upon all good Cliristians to pray for their souls. These 
were follow- d by the people who called aloud that the hot baths were ready for 
use; and after these came the tradespeople hawking their wares — butchers, 
millers, fishmongers, fruit-sellers, etc., besides menders of old clothes, who stood 
ready to repair any accidental rent in the garments of passers-by." 

+ A German writer who flourished during the fifteenth century (died 1471). The 
weight of evidence seems to favor his claim to the authorship of the work referred 
to, of which it has been said that it is " the nearest approach to the divine spirit of 
Christ which has ever emanated from the human mind," 



Principat Events and Dates. 



405 



Kings of France, 

From Clovis (511) to Louis XU. (1498). 



Line. Kame. Date of reign. 

g f Clovis 486- 511 

•5, J Descendants of Clovis 511- 742 

f I Chilperic III. Deposed by 

S [ Pepin 743- 752 

I f Pepin le Bref 752- 768 

Charlemagne 768-814 

Louis 1 814- 843 

Charles the Bold 843- 877 

Louis II 877- 879 

Louis III. and Carloman . . 879- 884 

Ciiarles the Fat 884-878 

Charles the Simple 898- 929 

Louis IV 929- 954 

[ Lothaire and Louis V 954- 987 

^ f Hugh Capet 987- 996 

§\ Robert 996-1031 

II Henry 1 1031-1060 

o [ Philip I 1060-1103 



Line. Name. 
f Louis VI 

Louis VII.... 

Philip II 

Louis VIII .. 

Louis IX 

PhUip III.... 

Philip IV.... 

Louis X 

Philip V 

Charles IV... 

Philip VI 

John 

Charles V 

m^ Charles VI... 

Charles VII.. 

Louis XI 

Charles Vm. 



Date 



of reign. 
1103-1137 
1137-1180 
1180-1223 
1223-1226 
1226-1270 
1270-1285 
1285-1314 
1314-1316 
1316-1322 
1322-1328 
1328-1350 
1350-1304 
1364-1380 
1380-1422 
1422-1401 
1461-1483 
1483-1498 



Summary of Principal Events and Dates. 

A.D. 

Pepin d'Heristal virtually becomes king 687 

Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel 732 

Lombardy subjugated by Charlemagne 775 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West 800 

Treaty of Verdun. France divided 843 

Normandy given to the Normans 911 

Conquest of England by William of Normandy 1066 

Enfranchisement of the Com.munes by Louis VT 1108 

English territories in France acquired by Philip II 1204 

Crusade against the Albigenses 1209 

The Albigenses entirely subdued by Louis IX 1229 

The States-General convoked by Philip IV 1302 

The peasant insurrection called the Jacquerie suppressed 1358 

The duchy of Burgundy conferred by John upon Philip 1363 

Death of the Constable du Guesclin 1380 

The battle of Rosebecque. Death of Philip van Artevelde 1383 

The French defeated at Agincourt by Henry V 1415 

The treaty of Troyes 1420 

Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, commenced her mission 1429 

The Maid of Orleans burnt as a sorceress at Rouen 1431 

The League of the Public Good formed against Louis XI 1465 

Charles the Bold defeated and killed at Nancy 1477 

Mary of Burgundy married to Maximilian 1477 

Capture of Naples by the French 1495 

Death of Charles VIII. End of the Valois period 1498 



40(j 



MedicB'})al Bisiof 



V' 



Topical Eeview. 



EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Who were theyf 

At what period did they live? 

With tvhat events connected? page 

Hugh the Great 379 

Robert 381 

Henry I 381 

Phihp 1 382 

Louis VI 382 

Eleanor of Guienne 382 

Henry of Normandy 382 

Phihp Augustus 382, 383, 384 

Raymond of Languedoc 383, 384 

Simon de Montfort 384 

Blanche of Castile 384 

Saint Louis 384,385 

Charles of An jou 385 

Peter of Aragon 385, 386 

Philip the Fair 386, 387 

Marigny 387 

Charles of Valois -. 387 

Queen Isabella 388 

Philip of Valois 388 

Robert de Sorbonne 391 

Abelard 391 

St. Bernard ... 391 

Jehan de Joinville . . . m 392 

Abbe Suger 392 

Marcel 393 

John the Good 394 

Charles the Wise 395, 402 

DuGuesclin 395 

Philip Van Artevelde 395 

Oliver Clisson 395 

Charles VII 395, 402 

Duke of Bedford 396 

Charles the Victorious 396 

Joan of Arc 397 

The Tiberius of France 398, 399, 402 

Charles the Bold 399, 404 

Mary of Burgundy 399 

Maximilian 399 

Anne of Brittany 400 

Louis, Duke of Orleans 400 

Jean Froissart 404 

Philippe de Comines 404 

Jean de Gerson 404 

Thomas a Kempis 404 



GREAT EVENTS. 

When did they occur? 

What led to them? 

What resulted therefrom? page 

Truce of God 381 

Establishment of the Communes 382 

Suppression of the Albigenses. . 383, 384 

Sicilian Vespers 385 

Revolt of the Flemings 386, 395 

Suppression of the Templars 386 

Creation of the Third Estate 387 

Persecution of the Jews 388 

Proclamation of the Salic Law 388 

Foundation of the Sorbonne 391 

Cession of Dauphiny 392 

Introduction of cannon 393, 402 

The Jacquerie 394 

Captivity of King John 394 

Foundation of the Royal Library 395 

Battle of Navarreto 395 

Battle of Rosebecque 395 

Conquest of Normandy 396 

Burning of the Maid of Orleans 398 

League of the Public Good 399 

Battle of Nancy 399 

INSTITUTIONS, Etc. 

Give a description of it. 

Period of its establishment. 

Chivalry or Knighthood 345 

Writing-rooms 345 

Tournament , 348 

Judicial Combat 349 

Knight-errantry 349 

Feudalism 342, 388 

Feudal Castles 343 

Serfs and Serfdom 344, 345, 389 

Trade 390 

Trouveres or Troubadours 391 

States-General 387, 400, 401 

Third Estate 387, 401 

Schools and Universities 390, 402 

Astrology 402 

The Drama 402 

Playing-cards 402 

Oil-painting 403 

Architecture 403 

Paris in the Middle Ages 403 




Europe 

cluriii'^' iJie tixne of 

THE CRUSADES 



Not- 
^&iglisfo Territory irvTraxvce 



30 




CHAPTER YL 

The Crusades. 

1. The Crusades were religious wars which, during the 
Middle Ages, were waged by the Christian nations of the 
West against the Mohammedans of the East. 
From an early period, it had been deemed by the 



Cause. 



Church an act of piety to make a pilgrimage to Palestine to 
yisit the various places which Christ had hallowed by his 




Crusaders. 

presence, and to pay devotion to the sepulcher in which his 
body had been entombed. The Saracens, who conquered 
Palestine in the seventh century, had respected these Chris- 
tian pilgrimages, and rather assisted than opposed those who 
made them, allowing them to build a church and a hospital 
at Jerusalem. 

2. But when the Seljuk Turks took possession of Syria 
and captured Jerusalem (1076), the pilgrims were treated 
with the most shocking cruelty and insult; and the news of 

Geographical Study, Map No. XV. 
What rvas the situation of : Iconium or Roum? Edessa? Armenia? Syria? An- 
TiocH? Jerusalem? Cyprus? Nice? Edessa? Antioch? Aleppo? Tri polls? Da- 
mascus? Jerusalem? Describe King Richard's route to Jerusalem in 1191. 



40g 



Medimval History. 



these atrocities excited the deepest indignation throughout 
Christendom. The Byzantine emperors, first tak- 
ing alarm, appealed to the Christian monarchs 



Seljuks. 



of the West; and Pope Gregory VII. had entertained the idea 
of sending aid to the Emperor Manuel, in ac- 
cordance with his earnest supplication, as early 
as 1073. It was not, however, until Peter the 



Peter the 
Hermit. 



Hermit, on returning from Palestine, depicted the dreadful 
sufferings of the Christians in that country, that any effective 
measures for relief were taken. 

3. This religious enthusiast was a native of Am'i-ens, in 
France, and animated all who listened to his preaching with 
the same hurning zeal against the infi- 
dels as had filled his own soul on witness- 
ing their atrocities. Pope Urban II. soon 

took up the cause; and two 

councils were held, at the 



Urban. 




Peter the Hermit. 



second of which, at Cler-mont', in France 
(1095), the Poj^e himself delivered an im- 
passioned address to a vast multitude of 
both clergy and laymen. His exhorta- 
tion was greeted with the cry of *^God 
wills it!" which burst simultaneously from 
every one present. The war was, accordingly, agreed upon; 
and all who entered into it were directed to wear, as a badge, 
a cross of red stuff attached to the shoulder. Hence these 
wars were called Crusades. 

First Crusade. 

4. From all parts of Europe thousands hurried, at the 

summons of the Pope, to take part in what was regarded as 

-| the holy war; and, in the spring of 1096, no less 

J than 275,000 men, consisting in great part of the 

the population, were on their way to Palestine. 

a great multitude; but the first 



First Crusade. 



dregs of 

Peter himself commanded 



The Crusades, 



409 



detachment, under Walter the Penniless, was cut to i)ieces by 
the Bulgarians, only a small band reaching Constantinoj^le, 
where it was joined by the forces of Peter.* 
This undisciplined multitude engaged the army 
of the Turkish sultan on the plains of Nice, but 
were defeated with great slaughter. A third and fourth ex- 
pedition of the same kind shared a similar fate. 

5. But the real Crusaders soon arrived at Constantinople. 



Walter the 
Penniless. 



These consisted of six armies of veteran soldiers, commanded 
by tlie most skillful and 
experienced generals of 
the age : Godfrey of Bou- 




Crusading 
arnnies. 



illon {boo-yong'), Duke of Lorraine; 
Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I., 
king of France; Robert, son of William 
the Conqueror of England; Count Ro- 
bert of Flanders; Bo'he-mond, Count 
of Tarentum, with his cousin, the no- 
ble and illustrious Tancred; and Count 
Raymond of Toulouse. The number 
of their forces was about 600,000 men. 
6. Having defeated Sultan Sol'y- 
man, and captured Nice, his capital 
(1097), they proceeded to Syria, and took Antioch (1098), after 
a siege of seven months. During this siege, thousands per- 
ished, and Peter the Hermit and multitudes of others deserted 
the ranks of the Crusaders and returned home. After rout- 
ing an immense army of Mohammedans, sent by the Persian 



Knights Templars. 



* " On reaching a plain at the base of a mountain, the peasant-pilgrims found 
themselves face to face with countless foes. VValter halted, formed his men, and 
did all that a brave and sagacious leader could do under the circumstances; but 
his skill was exerted in vain. Surrounded on all sides by superior numbers, and 
shrinking from the perils they had defied, the Crusaders lost heart and energy. 
At first, indeed, the conflict was fierce, and the carnage fearful; but ere long every 
hope expired, and, with Christian blood flowing around him like water, Walter fell in 
the midst of his foes, transfixed with arrows and covered with woimds."— ^'dg'ar's 
Cnisades and Crusaders. 



410 



MedicBval History. 



sultan to the assistance of the sultan of Koum, the Crusaders 
marched to Jerusalem, on reaching which they found their 
army reduced, by war, famine, and pestilence, to 
40,000 men.* After a siege of six weeks, this city 
surrendered (1099), and Godfrey of Bouillon was 
unanimously elected king.f A short time afterward, he de- 



Jerusalem 

taken. 



Succeeding 
events. 



feated the sultan of Egypt, with a 
vast army, at Ascalon. 

7. The kingdom of Jerusalem 
thus founded was gradually extended 

till it embraced the whole 

of Palestine. The greater 

part of Asia Minor was 
restored to the Eastern Empire. Bo- 
hemond was made Prince of Antioch, 
and Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, 
was made Prince of Edessa. At Jeru- 
salem were founded the two famous 
orders of the Knights Hospitallers of 
St. John and the Knights Templars, 
for the defense of the Holy Sepulcher. 
the three Latin principalities in the East maintained them- 
selves against the Mohammedan power, and increased in influ- 
ence and wealth. Thus Jerusalem became the capital of an 
important Christian state. 




Knight Hospitaller. 

For nearly fifty years, 



* When the Crusaders first came in sight of the Holy City, their emotion was 
intense. Some leaped and shouted; some threw themselves on the earth and kissed 
it; some gazed and wept. Their dreadful toils and sufferings were all forgotten in 
the supreme joy of that moment, in which their fondest wishes were realized. 

t " When the chiefs met to choose a king for the realm which they had won with 
their swords, one man only, Godfrey of Bouillon, appeared, to whom the crown 
could fitly be offered. But in the city where his Lord had worn the thorny crown, 
the veteran leader, who had looked on i-uthless slaughter without flinching and had 
borne his share in swelling the stream of blood, would wear no earthly diadem, nor 
take the title or king. He would watch over his Master's grave and the interest of 
his worshipers, under the humble guise of Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepul- 
cher; and as such, a fortnight after his election, Godfrey departed to do battle with 
the hosts of the Fatimite Caliph of Egypt. "—Coa;'s Crusades. 



The Crusades. 



411 



Second Crusade. 

8. The Second Crusade was excited by the dangers to 
which the Christians of Syria were exposed from the conquer- 
ing arms of a Turkish Eniir^ named Nou'red-din, 
who, having been ap})ointed governor of Aleppo, 
had so increased his power, that he became master of all the ter- 



Cause. 



ritory between the Tigris and 
the Nile. He had defeated 
the Franks at Antioch, and 
taken Edessa, and now threat- 
ened the destruction of all 
the Christian kingdoms in 
Syria. This crusade was 
jireached by the celebrated 
St. Ber'nard, Abbot of Clair- 
vaux {clare-vo'), in Cham- 
pagne, who was distinguished 
for his learning 

and devotion. 

Two immense armies, num- 
bering over a million of men, 
under Louis VII., king of 
France, and Conrad III., 
emperor of Germany, the 
most powerful monarchs of 
Europe, marched for . the 
Holy Land (1147). But, 
owing to the base treachery 
of Manuel Com-ne'nus, the Greek emperor, the armies met 
with a long series of disasters; and, after a fruit- 
less attempt to take Damascus, the expedition 
was abandoned, only a small remnant of the numerous host 




Result. 



returning to Europe, the greater part being slain, 
rest left captives among the Turks. 



and the 



412 Mediceval History, 

9. After this defeat of the Christians, Noureddin found 
himself more powerful than ever. He continued his attacks 
upon Jerusalem, but they were* successfully re- 
l)ulsed. He next turned his attention to the 



Fatimite caliph of Egypt, sending to the court of Cairo two 
emissaries, one of whom was the renowned Saladin, more 
properly iSalah-Eddin, who succeeded in getting 
possession of the viziership of Egypt, when, iind- 



Saladin. 



ing himself really master of the government, he abolished the 
Fatimite dynasty, and declared the reunion of Egypt with 
the orthodox caliphate of Bagdad. This was intended as a 
step to the government of the whole Mohammedan world, 
to which he aspired; and, as leading to that, he resolved to 
subdue the Christian kingdoms of Palestine. 

Third Crusade. 

10. Saladin invaded Palestine with a large army, defeated 

the Christians in a great battle, captured the smaller towns, 

and laid siege to Jerusalem, which surrendered 

after a resistance of two weeks (1187). This event 

created a great sensation in Europe, and led to the 



Christian 
defeat. 



Third Crusade, preached by William, archbishop of Tyre, 
who left Palestine to carry the news of the sub- 
jugation of the Christians to the people of the 



Third Crusade. 



West. Frederick Bar-ba-ros'sa, emperor of Germany, Philip 
Augustus of France, and Kichard I. of England promptly an- 
nounced themselves leaders in the great expedition. Others 
followed their example. The emperor set out first 
(1189), but was drowned while crossing on horse- 



Events. 



back the river Calycad'nus, in Cilicia. His army joined the 
forces of the other two monarchs at Acre, which city, after a 
long siege of nearly two years, was compelled to surrender, 
though Saladin made every effort to relieve the defenders 
(1191). No less than nine battles were fought, and more 
thati 100,000 Christians perished during this siege. 



The Crusades. 418 



11. Eichard and Philip having quarreled, the latter re- 
turned to Europe; but the former led his forces to Ascalon, 
and defeated Saladin, but was compelled to retire 
from Jerusalem. After accomplishing prodigies 



Richard. 



of valor, which excited the admiration of the Saracens, he 
nuide a treaty with Saladin, to protect the pilgrims from in- 
jury and oppression, and set out for Europe 
(1192). Saladin dying the next year, the unity 
of his empire was destroyed. The sultans of 



Death of 
Saladin. 



Egypt, Aleppo, and Damascus became hostile to each other; 
and the Christians of Syria were left secure in their possessions. 

Fourth Crusade. 
12. The Fourth Crusade was enjoined by Pope Innocent 
III., without any special exigency such as had brought about 
the preceding ones, but as a matter of general 
policy to stimulate Christian feeling, and to foster 



Cause. 



the opposition to Mohammedan encroachments. Several 
French and Italian nobles, among whom were Simon de 
Montfort of France and Count Baldwin of Flan- 
ders, offered themselves as leaders; while the 



Participants. 



Venetians supplied most of the means for equipment, and 
directed their doge, the as^ed and valiant Dan'- r ■ 

° , . A • Arnnannent. 

dolo, to accompany the expedition. An im- I 

mense armament was fitted out at Venice; but before it 
sailed, circumstances occurred to change its destination. 

13. Ever since the First Crusade, the Greek emperors had 
excited the suspicion and hostility of the Western Crusaders 
by their selfishness and perfidy; and at this time the son of a 
former emperor, who had been deposed, arrived at Venice to 
solicit assistance in the recovery of the throne. 
The Crusaders, embracing the opportunity to re- 
dress former grievances, and urged also by the 



Attack on 
Constantinople. 



Venetians, who desired to establish Western influence in the 
Greek Empire, as well as to unite the Roman and Greek 



414 



MedicBval History, 



Latin dynasty. 



churches, agreed to direct their forces against Constantinople, 
thus changing the expedition from a crusade to an attack on 
a Christian power. Constantinople was besieged, 
and given up to pillage, and the Greek dynasty 
was set aside (1204). The Latin dynasty then founded occu- 
pied the throne for fifty-six years. The effect of this Crusade 
was entirely adverse to the general object of these expeditious. 




War-Ships of the Thirteenth Century. 

since it tended, by weakening the G-reek Empire, to destroy 
the greatest barrier in Europe to the progress of Islamism 
westward. The subsequent fall of Constantinople proved this. 
A little after this, occurred the remarkable expedition called 
the Children's Crusade. It was preached by a French peasant- 
boy (1213); and, though the king of France issued an edict 
against it, thousands of boys embarked for Palestine, all of 
whom either perished, or were sold into slavery on reaching; 
Alexandria. 



The Crusades. 415 



Subsequent Crusades. 
14. The Fifth Crusade was incited by Pope Innocent III., 
in 1216, and was joined by people of various nationalities in 
Europe. They at first led their forces into Egypt, took Dami- 
et'ta, and advanced on Cairo; but were soon afterward glad to 
obtain the permission of the sultan to retire from the country 
(1218). The actual Crusade was led by Frederick II., emperor 
of Germany. It began in 1228, and was terminated by a 

treaty which the emperor made with the sultan i — 

of Egypt. In accordance with this treaty. Pales- I ' "^^^ ^' 



tine was ceded to Frederick, and free toleration granted of 
both the Christian and Mohammedan faiths. Under this 
arrangement, the Christians lived in Jerusalem in peace and 
prosperity, undisturbed until the irruption of the Mongols in 
the middle of the thirteenth century. The Sixth Crusade 
was undertaken by Louis IX. (St. Louis) of France (1249), 
in consequence of the capture and pillage of Jerusalem by 
the barbarous Mongols. The French monarch, 
after having taken Damietta, was utterly de- 



Sixth Crusade. 



feated by the sultan of Egypt, and taken prisoner. He was 
afterward ransomed by his subjects (1250). 

15. The Seventh Crusade was undertaken by St. Louis in 
alliance with Prince Edward (afterward Edward I.) of Eng- 
land (1269), in consequence of the taking of 
Antioch by the Mam'e-luke* sultan of Egypt. 
Louis crossed to Africa, expecting to receive the 



Seventh 
Crusade. 



king of Tunis as a convert to Christianity; but, instead of a 
convert, he found a determined enemy; and a pestilence hav- 
ing broken out, the French perished by thousands on the 
burning sands. St. Louis died in his tent; and his son 



* The Mamelukes (a word meaning, in Arabic, slaves) were of Turkish origin, and 
were bought by the sultan of Egypt and placed in the army. In 1254, they had ad- 
vanced to such a degree of power, that they made one of their number sultan, and 
founded a dynasty which occupied the throne of Egypt for centuries, 



416 Mediceval History. 

Philip, after making a treaty with the king of Tunis, re- 
turned to France (1270). Prince Edward, however, pro- 
ceeded to the Holy Land, and gained some advantages by 
his skill and valor; and after making a ten years' truce, he 
returned home to ascend the English throne. 

16. This was the last of the Crusades. Antioch had been 
taken by the sultan of Egypt, and all its inhabitants slaugh- 
tered or made slaves in 1268; the other towns of Syria soon 
after fell successively into the hands of the Mohammedans, 
excepting Acre, which for a time was the metropolis of the 
Christians. This also was captured by the sultan in 1291, and 
its inhabitants, to the number of GO, 000, put to death or sent 
into bondage. Soon afterward, all the churches and fortifica- 
tions of the Latin Christians throughout Syria were demolished. 

Influence of the Crusades. 

17. These enterprises indirectly contributed very greatly 
to the political and social improvement of the nations of 

Europe during the Middle Ages. They tended 
to break up the feudal system, by compelling 
the great barons to sell their lands, in order to 



On the feudal 
syslem. 



raise the money necessary to equip their troops and transport 
them to distant countries. They also aided popular freedom, 
by inducing kings to grant to the towns political privileges, 
in return for contributions of money for the same purpose. 
They encouraged commerce, by employing so 
many ships and such vast supplies as were ro- 
piired to transport and sustain the vast armies 



On commerce 
and navigation. 



wliich ^GYQ raised and sent out to so great a distance. For- 
eign countries were brought into communication with each 
other, and the advantage of a mutual exchange of products 
soon became apparent. Thus the arts of navigation and ship- 
building rapidly advanced, and many cities situated in the 
route of these expeditions soon acquired extraordinary influ- 
ence and wealth. Of these G-en'oa and Venice are examples. 



Frincipal Events and Dates. 417 

18. They promoted the diffusion of knowledge, and the 
progress of science and literature. Those who engaged in 
them were at first grossly ignorant and illiterate; 
but coming in contact with the Greek and Sara- 
cenic civilization, they soon imbibed a taste for 



On science and 
literature. 



the science and literature which constituted one of its most 
prominent features, and, on returning home, communicated 
the same spirit to their fellow-countrymen. Moreover, they 
were enterprises undertaken for a noble and un- 
selfish purpose; and although blended with it 



On character. 



was the desire of military distinction and renown, this was 
to be gratified by great self-sacrifice and personal devotion to 
a cause which conscience and religion approved. Hence were 
necessarily infused that heroic and disinterested spirit, that 
eas^erness to succor the weak and distressed, that love of roman- 
tic adventure, and those elevated sentiments of honor, all of 
which went to form that remarkable feature of the manners 
of the Middle Ages known as chivalry. (See page 57.) 



Summary of Principal Events and Dates. 

A.D. 

The Seljuk Turks take possession of Jerusalem 1076 

Council held at Clermont 1095 

First Crusade, proclaimed by Pope Urban II 1095 

Peter the Hermit and the Crusaders start for the Hol.y Land 1096 

Solyman defeated, and Nice taken by the Crusading armies 1097 

Antioch taken by the Crusaders 1098 

Jerusalem taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon elected king 1099 

Second Crusade, undertaken by Louis VII. and Conrad 1147 

Saladin defeats the Christians and takes Jerusalem 1187 

Third Crusade, under Philip II., Richai-d I., and Frederick Barbarossa 1189 

Richard I. set out on his return to Europe 1193 

Saladin's death; his empire dissolved 1193 

Fourth Crusade, under Baldwin . Count of Flanders 1203 

Constantinople taken by the Crusaders 1204 

Fifth Crusade, under the Emperor Frederick II 1228 

Sixth Crusade, under Louis IX. (St. Louis), king of France 1249 

Antioch taken by the Sultan of Egj'pt 1268 

Seventh Crusade, under Louis IX. and Prince Edward of England 1279 

Capture of Acre by the Mohamraedans. Total conquest of Syria and subjuga- 
tion of the Latin Christians , , 1291 

9 



CHAPTER YII. 
Central and Southern Europe. 



SECTION I. 
Germany. 



1. After the battle of Fontenaille, in which the degen- 
erate grandsons of Charlemagne fought with each other over 
the territories subdued by his wisdom and valor, 
the empire was divided into three portions — 
France, Cermany, and Italy; and the second 



Divisions of the 
empire. 



of these divisions was assigned to Louis (843). The Carlo- 
vingian race became extinct in 911; and there- 
after the Di'et, or Great Council, consisting of 



the great princes of Germany and the chief dignitaries of the 
Church, assumed the right of electing the emperor, subject 
to confirmation by the Pope, by whom alone he could be 
crowned. Several races at this time occupied 
Germany, the chief of which were the Franks, 



Races. 



the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Suabians. The first 
choice of the electors was Otto the Illustrious, 
Duke of Saxony; but, he declining, they chose 
Conrad of Franconia (912). Conrad was a good 



Otto and 
Conrad. 



and wise monarch, but he reigned only six years, his death 
occurring in 918. 

Geographical Study. (Map, page 419.) 
What is the situation of : Germany? Kingdom of Burgundy? Austria? Hun- 
gary? Bohemia? Brandenburg? Poland? Pomerania? Saxony? Westphalia? 
Francia? Lotharingia? Suabia? Brabant? Flanders? France? Vienna? Prague? 
Hamburg? Frankfort? Aacheu? Strasburg? Milan? Venice? Genoa? Geneva? 
Aries? Florence? 



Germany. 



419 



%r Five Saxon emperors succeeded {Saxon Dynady), the 
first of whom, Henry I. (called the Foioler),'^ was a very great 
monarch. He subdued the rebellious and dis- 
orderly i)rinces, and restored peace to the coun- 
try. Bohemia was made tributary to the German Empire, 
and the Suabians were subdued. Henry also gained a great 



Yictory over the Hungarians, who had swarmed into Saxony; 




Central Europe (about 1200). 

and so thankful were the people for their deliverance from 
these savage hordes, that he was hailed as the ^'Father of 
his Country" (934). f To this great achievement was added 

* He received the title of Fowler, because he was flying his hawks on the Hartz 
mountains, when the messengers came to tell him that he had been chosen king. 

t " The nine years' truce being ended, the Hungarians sent to the Fowler for 
blackmail. Blackmail indeed! The only tribute Henry would give them was a 



420 Mediceml History, • 

an invasion of Denmark, and the reduction of the sea-kings 
to submission. His reformatory measures and institutions, 
both civil and religious, were very important. He died in 
93G, being succeeded by his son Otho, or Otto. 

3. Otto I., (or Otho I.), the Lion, on marrying the widow of 
the king of Normandy, assumed himself that title, and made 
the kingdom a fief of Germany. Tlie Hungarians 
renewed their invasions, but were defeated by 



Lombardy. 



Otto in a great battle fought in Bavaria. The Duke of Lom- 
bardy having revolted. Otto, at the head of a 
victorious army, passed the Alps, subdued the 



Hungarians. 



rebel duke, and after receiving at Milan the iron crown of the 
Lombards, was crowned by the Pope Emperor of 
the West {Kaiser — C(Bsar)y like his great prede- 
cessor, Charlemagne (962). He was a zealous 



Crowned 
ennperor. 



patron of letters, having a school in his own palace, though 
he could neither read nor write. He died in 973. In this 
reign the Hartz silver-mines were discovered. 

4. Otto II., called the Red King, succeeded his father as 
^' King of Germany and Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire," 
being elected by the princes, and crowned by the Pope. His 
reign was a constant series of wars. He defeated the Saracens 
in Lower Italy, and made himself master of 
Naples and Tarentum; but the Greek emperor 



Saracens. 



having invited the Saracens again into Italy, Otto was entirely 

overwhelmed by them, and narrowly escaped with life. At a 

diet held in Ve-ro'na, he formally confirmed the privileges of 

\ 1 the Republic of Venice: and was preparinor a 

Venice. , ± j. cj 

. _J great expedition against the Greeks and Sara- 
cens, when he died in Italy, probably from the effects of 
poison (983). 

mangj' cur, cropped of its ears and tail. The Hungarians were furious; they vowed 
vengeance, death without mercy, battle without quarter; but vengeance had gone 
over to the other side. A battle was fought at Meneburg, in Saxony, and the Hun- 
garians were defeated. The massacre was dreadful ; the number of prisoners, we 
are told, was 200,000."— 5re?rer's History of Germany. 



Germany. 



421 



5. Otto III. (called the Wonder of the World), at the death 
of his father, was only three years old; and from an early age 
was the pupil of Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylves- 
ter II., one of the most accomplished scholars of 
his age. It was owing to his extraordinary attainments under 
this great teacher, that Otto received his title. On com- 



Sylvester. 



mencing his reign, at the age of sixteen, his principal am- 




A Summons to a Town to Open its Gates and Surrender. 
(From an old engraving.) 

bition seemed to be to introduce the customs of the Byzantine 
court, and to make Rome his capital. By for- 
mally acknowledging the Duke of Poland as a 



Poland. 



separate ruler, he raised the Polish territories to the rank of 
a kingdom. He died in Italy (1002). 

6. Henry II. (the Lame), cousin of Otto, succeeded him. 
The Polish ruler having refused tribute and homage to the 
new kaiser, and, moreover, having annexed Bohe- 
mia to his dominions, and invaded the country 



Henry II. 



of the Prussians, Henry, after a war of several years, made a 
treaty with him, acknowlecldug the independence of Poland, 
but retaining Bohemia as a fief of Germany. The Lombards 



422 . Mediceval History. 

having revolted, lie marclied into Italy, and took Pavia, 
which was burned. He also successfully . made 
war upon the Greeks in southern Italy. He was 



Wars in Italy. 



a very pious king, and in great favor with the Church; hence 
sometimes called the JSaint. At his death (1024), the Saxon 
Dynasty terminated. 

7. The Franconian Dynasty, consisting of four emperors, 
succeeded. The first was Conrad II., who, by his marriage, 
annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire 
(1033). He made a treaty of peace and friend- 



ship with Canute, king of Denmark and England; and, 
having been crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy, 
received the submission of all the cities in northern Italy, 
including Pavia. He also received the homage of the Nor- 
mans and Saracens in southern Italy. The ^' Peace of God" 
(see page 93) was issued during this reign. Conrad died in 
1039. 

8. Henry III. (called, the Black King, from the color of his 
hair) succeeded. In the second year of his reign, the ^' Truce 
of God" was substituted for the /^ Peace of 
God;"* and the emperor proclaimed that Ger- 



Peace. 



many enjoyed a universal peace, for the first time since the 
monarchy was founded. He gained a great vic- 
tory over the Hungarians (1044), and made their 



Hungarians. 



kingdom tributary to the empire. This great king died in 
early manhood, after a reign of seventeen years 
(1056). His son Henry, who had previously re- 
ceived the title of ^' Kmg of the Komans," suc- 



King of the 
Romans. 



ceeded him. This title was subsequently borne by every 
heir-elect of the empire. 

* " Henry summoned a diet of the German princes, ur^ed the measure upon 
them in an eloquent speech, and set the example by proclaiming a full and free 
pardon to all who had been his enemies. The change was too sudden to be accept- 
able to many of the princes, but they obeyed as far as convenient; and the German 
people, almost for the first time in their history, enjoyed a general peace and 
(security. "--J5a7/ard Taylor'' s History of Germany. 



Germany. 



42B 



9. Henry IV. (the Great), a child of five years at the death 
of his father, assumed the government at the age of fifteen. 
The extravagance of the court and the haughti- 
ness of the young king caused an insurrection of 



Saxons, 



the Saxons; and Henry, for a time, was compelled to yield 
to their demands; but finally he marched into Saxony with 
an immense army, defeated his enemies in a terrible battle, 
and laid waste their country with fire and sword (1075). His 
next contest was with the famous Pope Gregory 
Vn. (Hildebrand). This talented and energetic 



Hildebrand. 



pontiff aimed to free the Church from its abuses and make it 
supreme over the civil power, and there- 
fore determined to put a stop to the cor- 
rupt sale of ecclesiastical offices by the 
emperor. Henry, resisting this, was ex- 
communicated; and, in 1077, the greatest 
temporal monarch in the world was forced 
to stand barefoot on the frosty earth at Ca- 
nossa (a town in Italy) for three days, wait- 
ing for admission to Gregory, to whom he 
finally made the most abject submission.* 
10. But Henry, stung to madness by 
the humiliation he had suffered, returned to Germany, raised 
a large army, and conquered Rudolf of Suabia, 
whom the Pope had caused to be elected in his 




Gregory VII. 



Henry's revenge- 



place. Then passing into Italy, he took Rome (1084), and 



* " It was the fourth day on which he had borne the humiliating garb of an 
affected penitent, and in that sordid raiment he drew near on his bare feet to the 
more than imperial majesty of the Church, and prostrated himself, in more than 
servile deference, before the diminutive and emaciated old man, ' from the terrible 
glance of whose countenance,' we are told, ' the eye of every beholder recoiled as 
from the lightning.' Hunger, cold, nakedness, and shame had, for the moment, 
crushed the gallant spirit of the sufferer. He wept and cried for mercy, again and 
again renewing his entreaties until he had reached the lowest level of abasement to 
which his own enfeebled heart, or the haughtiness of his great antagonist, could 
depress him. Then, and not till then, did the Pope condescend to revoke the an- 
athema of the Vatican,"— /Sir J. Stephen. 



424 Mediceval History. 

ordered the election of a pope in place of Gregory, whom he 
declared to be deposed, and drove into exile at Salerno, a 
town in southern Italy. Here this zealous and able pontiff 
died (1085); but, notwithstanding his misfortunes, he left the 
papal power greatly strengthened and improved by his efforts.* 
Henry IV. reigned till 1106, when he was succeeded by 
Henry V., called the Parricide, because he had 
deposed his father. f His reign was a constant 



Henry V. 



struggle with the Church and the nobles. He was the last of 
the Franconian emperors. The crown was next worn by 
Lothaire of Saxony (1125-1137), when it passed into the 
possession of Conrad of Suabia. 

11. Conrad III, the first of the house of Hohenstaufen 
(-stow[fen) or Suabia, had been chosen by the electors in 
preference to his rival, Henry the Proud, son-in- 
law of Lothaire. Guelph, the brother of Henry, 
made war upon the new king, but being defeated 



Henry the 
Proud. 



took refuge in Weinsburg, which Conrad besieged and took 
(1140). J; Unable to resist the eloquence of Bernard, in his 
passionate appeal for aid in the Second Crusade, Conrad 

* " The monk of Cluny, Hildebrand of Savona, whe had inspired the poUcy of 
four popes, during twenty-four years, became Pope himself in 1073, under the 
name of Gregory VII. He was a man of iron will and inexhaustible energy, wise 
and far-seeing beyond any of his contemporaries and unquestionably sincere in his 
aim?,:'— Bayard Taylor. His last words were: "I have loved righteousness, and 
hated iniquity; and, therefore, I die in exile." 

t In the latter part of his life, a curse seemed to rest upon Henry IV. His sons 
rebelled against him, his wife proved unfaithful; and at last he was compelled to 
abdicate by his favorite son Henry. A homeless beggar, he wandered from house 
to house, refused by every one food and shelter. He made his way to Liege, where 
he was found dead on the door-steps of a religious house from which he had been 
spurned. As he died under the ban of the Church, his body was denied funeral 
rites, and for five years lay in a cellar at Liege. In 1111, it was removed to Spires 
and their buried, the ban having been removed by the Pope. 

X The city having made an obstinate defense, Conrad determined to burn it to 
the ground, but gave notice that the women might depart and take with them 
whatever they liked best. When the gates were thrown open, the women appeared 
each carrying a husband, a lover, or a son. This moved the king so greatly, that 
he pardoned the rebels and spared the city. The terms Guelphs and GhihelUnes 
originated at this time, the former being the password of the rebels, and the latter 
of Conrad's army. 



Germany. 425 



3'ielded, and set out for the Holy Land with an army of 
60,000 men; but he met with nothing but dis- 
aster, and after an absence of two years re- 
turned to Germany. He died in 1152. Con- 



Second 
Crusade. 



rad was never crowned kaiser, being only king of Germany. 
12. Frederick I. (Barbarossa — Red Beard) was a great 
monarch, and was honored with the title of " Father of his 
Country." In the first year of his reign, he 
compelled the kings of Denmark, Poland, and 
Hungary to do homage to him for their crowns; 



Principa 
events. 



he raised the duchy of Bohemia to a kingdom; and by his 
marriage obtained possession of Burgundy. He had a diffi- 
culty with Pope Adrian IV., but it was soon settled, and he 
was crowned kaiser in St. Peter's. Frederick's greatest con- 
test was with the cities of Lombardy, which were 
then emerging into power, and demanded their 



Lombard cities. 



independence. Although at first defeated, they gained a 
great victory over Frederick in the battle of Legnano (len- 
yah^no)* (1176); and by the peace of Constance,! gained the 
right of independent government, though they recognized the 
emperor as chief ruler (1183). Frederick perished in the 
Third Crusade (1190). 

13. The interval between the death of Frederick Barba- 
rossa and the accession of the Hapsburg line (1190-1273), 
was a period of constant internal commotion and foreign war. 
The most eminent of the emperors of this period 
was Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa, and 



Frederick II. 



one of the ablest and most accomplished sovereigns of the 
Middle Ages. He was compelled, by his obligations to the 
Pope, to undertake two expeditions to the Holy Land, in the 
second of which he was successful. Contests with the Italian 
cities and with the papacy occupied the remainder of his 

* A town in northern Italy, sixteen miles northwest of Milan. 
t A town in the southwestern part of Germany, on the northwestern shore of 
Lake Constance. 



426 MedicBval History. 

reign.* He died in 1250, being succeeded by Conrad IV., 
whose reign was the last of the house of Hohen- 
staufen. At his death (1254), he left a son, 



Conrad IV. 



Conrad, only two years old (called in history Konradin — the 
little Conrad). He received a good education, became a 
scholar and a poet; and at the age of ten the diet would have 
crowned him king of Germany, but the Pope opposed it. 

14. Subsequently, he became the central figure in a pathet- 
ic tragedy. After the death of Conrad IV., the Pope claimed 

; Naples and Sicily as being forfeited to the 

^_!!!!!_l!!l^ Church, and gave the latter to Charles of Anjou, 
brother of Louis IX., King of France. Manfred, the ruling 
king, was the uncle of Konradin ; and resisting the Pope, 
was defeated and slain. Konradin determined to avenge the 
injury to his uncle, raised a considerable force, with which he 
marched into Italy, and invaded the territory of Naples. He 
was, however, defeated in battle, and falling into the hands 
of Charles, was ordered to be executed. Thus perished, at 
the age of sixteen, the last of the Hohenstaufens (1268). 
The poet Dante, then a boy of three years, was present at this 
execution, t 

15. Germany could scarcely be deemed a united empire 
after the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The Italian republics had 
become practically independent ; and the rest of the empire 
was made up of various states — dukedoms, principalities, 
bishoprics, etc., loosely confederated together. For seven- 

* During the reign of Kaiser Frederick II., the Teutonic knights took possession 
of Prussia, in order to reduce the heathen people to Chi-istianity. It was afterward 
united to Brandenburg; and now (1881) the king of Prussia is German emperor. 

t Konradin and his friend Frederick of Baden, also a mere youth, Avere led to 
the scaffold, while the savage Charles watched the scene from a window of his 
palace, and the people looked on in gloom and discontent, only prevented from 
revolt by the roj^al guards. Konradin, standing on the scaffold, threw his glov^ 
among the spectators, that some friend might take it up and avenge his death. 
Then, exclaiming, "O mother, what sorrow I have caused thee!" he knelt, and 
received the fatal blow. Frederick and thirteen others were executed with him. 
In 1282, the massacre of the " Sicilian Vespers" occurred; the French in Sicily were 
slaughtered, and Peter of Aragon became king of the island. (See page 385.) 



Germany. 427 



teen years (1256-1273), there were several who bore the title 
of Kaiser; but there was, in fact, no reigning em- 
peror. This period, called the Great Interregnum, 
is one of the darkest in German history. The 



Great 
Interregnum. 



country was filled with feudal castles, the residences of robber 
barons, whose quarrels, outrages, and depredations gave the 
people neither peace nor safety. 

16. Rudolph I, the first of the Hapshurg * line, was just 
the man for the position which he was elected to fill. He was 
an experienced warrior, of determined will and 
indomitable courage, vigorous in intellect, and 



Character. 



of a powerful physical frame. He subdued Ot'to-car of Bo- 
hemia, and seized his dominions, including Austria, thus 
founding the present Austrian Empire. He 
ruled with much skill and energy; and, reducing 



Ottocar. 



the robber nobles to submission, greatly increased the imperial 
power, f On his death (1291), Albert, his son, was set aside 
by the electors, and Adolf of Nassau was ap- 
pointed in his stead; but, a few years afterward, 



he was deposed, and Albert elected in his place (1298). Adolf, 
resisting, was slain in battle. 

17. Albert I, was naturally a despot, and cared nothing 
for the welfare of his subjects. J Dnriug his reign, the Swiss 
cantons made their memorable rising for independence, 
being provoked, according to the popular tradition, by the 



* Hapshurg, meaning Hawk's Castle, was the name given to the stronghold built 
on the Rhine by the feudal ancestors of this race. 

t " In Thuringia, which was perhaps the worst of the haunts, he leveled to the 
ground as many as sixty-six castles, and put to death twenty-nine of the robber 
nobles. Some were tied to the tails of their own horses and trampled to death; 
others were hung on the nearest tree."— Dr. Brewer. 

X His manners and personal appearance were by no means prepossessing. It is 
said he "looked like a clown and behaved like a loon." He was "big-nosed, loose- 
lipped, blind of one eye, ill-mannered, grasping, selfish, and overbearing." When 
Pope Boniface VIII. was told of his election, he exclaimed, " How can Siuch a one- 
eyed lout be emperor of the Romans!" Indeed, the Pope refused to sanction his 
election, and excommunicated him; but he afterward became reconciled to t^h? 
"one-eyed lout," 



428 Mediceval History. 

tyranny of the governor, Gesler (ghes'ler), who commanded, 
as the story goes, the citizens of Al'torf to bow 
before the ducal cap of Austria, set upon a pole 



Swiss cantons. 



in the market-place. This William Tell refused to do; and 
was condemned to lose his life, or shoot an apple from his 
son's head. Although he succeeded in this trying 
ordeal, the governor still refused to set him at 



William Tell. 



liberty; but a storm arising as he was carried in chains across 
the lake, he was unfettered, in order that he might render aid 
as a steersman; when, leaping from the vessel as it neared the 
shore, he escaped, and a short time after avenged himself and 
his country by slaying the tyrannical governor (1308).* The 
emperor himself was murdered the same year in Switzerland 
by his nephew, John of Suabia. 

18. After the murder of Albert, the imperial throne wscs 
filled by Henry VII. (1309-1313), who released the three Swiss 
cantons from their allegiance to the house of 
Hapsburg, and gave Austria to the sons of Albert. 



Henry Vii 



The two rival kaisers, Frederick of Austria and Louis of 
Bavaria, followed, the latter of whom finally 
triumphed in battle (1322). Louis reigned till 
his death in 1347; but the year previous he was 



Frederick 
and Louis. 



excommunicated by the Pope; and the archbishops united 
with the latter in the selection of Charles of 
Luxemburg; but the free cities and most of the 



Charles. 



temporal princes stood by Louis. The free cities, of which 
there were about 150, now rose to great influence 
and prosperity. They encouraged learning, pro- 



Free citi( 



moted commerce, and thus contributed greatly to the progress 
of Germany. 

19. Charles IV., at first opposed by the elector?, finally 
gained the throne. Having been nominated by the Pope 
without the consent of the electors, he was called the ^' Pope's 

* The story of William Tell is a traditjouary legend, the details of whjcb are pow 
believed by many to be flctitjoug, 



Germany, 429 



Kaiser." He was the grandson of Henry VII., and the son 
of John, King of Bohemia, who was slain by the 
Black Prince at the battle of Crecy. Charles 



Pope's Kaiser. 



Golden Bui 



possessed great learning himself, and encouraged it. He 

founded the three universities of Heidelberg, Vienna, and 

Prague. His most important act was the issue 

of the '^ Golden Bull," by which the electors of 

the German Empire and the mode of election were defined 

(1356).* The famous Rienzi, ''the last of the 

Roman Tribunes," was arrested by the emperor, 



and for a time kept a prisoner in Prague. Charles reigned 
till 1378. The ''Black Death" raged during the first years 
of this reign. 

20. The death of Charles IV. was followed by the reign 
of Wenceslas, called the Worthless (1378-1400), and Rupert 
(1400-1410), after whom the crown was con- 
ferred on Sig'is-mund of Hungary, a son of 



Sigismund. 



Charles IV. (1410), called the " Light of the World." This 
emperor had been king of Hungary, and was a very accom- 
plished man. It was in this reign that the great 
Council of Constance met (1414), at which, there 
being three competitors for the pontifical throne. 



Council of 
Constance. 



Martin V. was elected Pope, and the great schism extin- 
guished. The doctrines of Wickliffe were also condemned; 
and John Huss, rector of the University of 
Prague, having adopted and preached them, was 



cited to appear before the Council. Refusing to retract, he 
was degraded from the priesthood; and having been delivered 
up to the civil law, was burnt at the stake for heresy (1415). 
Huss had received from the emperor a safe-conduct; but 

* The Golden Bull was so called because its seal was inclosed in a gold case. 
By this instrument the number of electors was prescribed— three prelates and four 
lay princes; and no appeal was permitted from their decision by a majority vote. 
They were to meet at Frankfort; and the place of coronation was Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The college of electors thus constituted lasted, with few changes, 450 years, till the 
time of Napoleon, who broke up the Germau Empire, 



430 Mediceval History. 



Sigismund broke his plighted word, in permitting this cruel 
sentence to be executed. Jerome of Prague, the 
friend and disciple of Huss, the next year shared 



Jerome. 



the same fate. 

21. This led to a furious war of sixteen years, in the first 
part of which the Bohemians, or Hussites, were led by tlie 
famous John Zisca, and defeated the armies of 
Sigismund in many battles. In 1422, a treaty 



Bohemian war. 



was made by the emperor, by which the religious liberty of 
the Hussites in Bohemia was fully acknowledged. The war, 
however, was afterward renewed, and continued till 1434. 
While the war was going on, Sigismund marched against the 
Ottoman Turks, whom he defeated in a great 
battle near Nissa (1419). By this victory, he 



Turks, 



not only took vengeance upon those fierce barbarians for his 
own disastrous defeat at Nicopolis, twenty-three years before, 
but checked for some time the Ottoman conquests on the 
eastern frontier. Sigismund died in 1437; and the house of 
Austria succeeded, which occupied the throne about three 
centuries (1437-1740). 

22. The short reign of Albert 11, the Illustrious (1438- 
1439), was followed by that of Frederick III, the Pacific, who, 
in order to aggrandize the house of Austria,* 
neglected the general interests of the empire, and 
suffered the Ottomans, who had taken Constanti- 



Albert II. 
Frederick III. 



nople (1453), to make great encroachments upon its terri- 
tories. He was the last German emperor that was crowned 
at Rome. He succeeded in effecting a marriage between his 
son Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, thus obtaining for the 
former the sovereignty of the Netherlands, which 
Marv had inherited from her father, Charles the 



Netherlands. 



Bold. Frederick's reign was the longest in German history, 

* Frederick adopted for his device an anagram consisting of the five vovels, 
A, E, I, O, U, meaning, in Latin, Austria Est Imperatura Orhi TJniversa^ or, in Eng- 
lish, Austria's Empire Is Or(Xained Universal. 



Germany. 431 



lasting fifty-three years. He was succeeded by Maximilian 
(149o). During Frederick's reign, printing was 
invented in Germany (about 1450). With this 



Printing. 



reign terminates the mediaeval period of German history. 
State of Society in Germany 

During the Middle Ages. 
23. From the time of the great German warrior and 
patriot Hermann, to the reign of Charlemagne, 
the political history of Germany is almost a blank. 



Early period. 



Many petty states were formed, each under its own chief; and 
Christianity was introduced and propagated by 
English and Irish missionaries, among whom 



Criristianity. 



should be especially mentioned the English monk Winifred, 
afterward named Boniface, and called, on account of his zeal, 
the '^'Apostle of tlie Germans." 

24. The Feudal System was firmly established in Ger- 
many, with the resulting lawnessness and violence that charac- 
terized the institution in other parts of Europe. 
The king or kaiser* was but a nominal sovereign; 



Feudal syster 



for many of his vassals were richer than himself and quite as 
powerful. They only owed their lord military service; and 
when that was rendered, they were free to do as they pleased. 
It was not until the close of the Saxon dynasty that Germany 
was formed into a really organized state, under 
the rule of laws, and with properly constituted 



Organization. 



magistrates to execute them. Churches were founded in 
every part of the country, and there were many walled towns 

* The title kaiser — emperor — was conferred on Charlemagne when he was 
crowned Emperor of the West, or Emperor of the Romans. Louis le Debonnaire 
also received the title, and afterward Lothaire, King of ItalJ^ It then passed to the 
German King Louis, or Ludwig, and next to Charles the Fat, of France, on whose 
death the empire ceased to exist for abour three quarters of a centurJ^ Otto I. 
received the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a title borne by all the 
sovereigns of Germany till the time of Napoleon I. This title is, however, synony- 
mous w^ith Emperor of the West, Emperor of the Romans, or the German title 
kaiser. King of the Romans was a title conferred by Henry HI. on his son as 
emperor elect or prospective, and was thus used up to the sixteenth century. 



432 



Mediwval History. 



in various parts, some of which were Imperial Free Cities, 
others ducal towns, and church cities, so called because built 
on church lands, and having the bishop as chief magistrate. 

25. Notwithstanding the general spread of Christianity, 
the state of society was very low. There was but little respect 
for property or life. Almost any offense, except 
parricide, sacrilege, or the killing of a master by 



State of society 



Cities. 



his slave, could be atoned for by paying a fine, called a money- 
hote. Rough manners and coarse sensuality characterized the 
people of all classes, until the cities, having ac- 
quired a certain degree of independence, increased 
in industry and thrift. This was promoted by Henry Y., 
who admitted their artisans to the privileges of free burghers. 
Serfdom was gradually abolished; and, before 
the end of the thirteenth centuvy, generally gave 



Serfdom. 



place to a free peasantry. 

26. In the thirteenth century was formed the famous 

league of cities, called the Hansa, or Hanseatic League, the 
object being to protect their shipping against 
pirates, and to extend their commerce. Ham- 
burg and Lubeck were the first to form a union; 



Hanseatic 
League. 



but Brunswick, Bremen, Cologne, Dantzic, and many other 
towns soon joined the confederacy, which became very power- 
ful, and exerted an important influence on the civilization 
and commercial prosperity of Germany. The chief foreign 
depots of the league were London, Bruges,* Novgorod,! and 



* Bruges, the chief city of Flanders, was, in the Middle Ages, the great emporium 
of central Europe, distinguished not only for its extensive commerce, but its manu- 
factures, particularly of cloths and tapestries. Hallani remarks: "In the thir- 
teenth century, it was said that all the world '..as clothed from English wool 
wrought in Flanders." 

t " Novgorod, on the banks of the Ilmen Lake, was the glory of Russia during 
the Middle Ages, with its strong walls, its 250 churches and convents glittering ^vith 
gilt cupolas, and its 300,000 active citizens, who soon threw off the yoke of the 
wrangling Russian princes, and constituted themselves into the celebrated republic. 
Later (after 1240), it entered the confederacy of the Hanseatic cities, and became 
the gi-eat emporium of Indian commerce for the north of Europe. "—.Kbeppen's 
Middle Ages, 



Germany. 433 



Bergen.* Its deputies met every three years at Lubeck. The 
confederacy attained its grentest prosperity and niflneiice in 
the fourteenth century. Its last general assembly met in 
1630. t 

27. The peasants or serfs lived in miserable hovels near 
the castle to whose lord they looked for protection. The 
townsfolk had wooden houses, with few con- 
veniences, and furnished in the rudest manner. 



Dwellings. 



The dwellings of the nobles were huge castles, gloomy and 
lonesome, built on a high hill or some other almost inaccessible 
place. The master and his numerous retainers, when not 
engaged in war and pillage, passed their time in feasting and 
revelry, interspersed with rough brawls. The women occu- 
pied themselves in spinning, embroidery, weaving 
gold fringe, making banners, etc., or playing on 



Employments. 



the harp or lute. During the grand banquets and festivals, 
crowds of minstrels, jugglers, mimics, and clowns flocked to 
the castle to amuse the guests. Some of the 
furniture w^as often rare and costly — fine table- 



Furniture. 



linen from Damascus, and rich tapestry; and their drinking- 
vessels were sometimes of silver, though usually of horn or 
earthenware. They had only wooden platters or pewter 
trenchers, and knives and forks were not used at the table, 
each person taking up his food in his fingers. 

28. The costume of the king and nobles was rich and 
elaborate. The former, on great occasions, wore a magnifi- 
cent purple tunic, with a golden girdle, from 
which hung a sword. On his head was a jeweled 



cap of crimson velvet, his hair flowing over his shoulders. 



* A commercial town on the western co£i,..t of Norway. 

t " Eighty of the most considerable places constituted the Hanseatic con- 
federacy, divided into four colleges, whereof Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and 
Dantzic were the leading towns. Lubeck held the chief rank, and became, as it 
were, the patriarchal see of the league ; whose province it was to preside in all gen- 
eral discussions for mercantile, political, or militaiy purposes, and to carry them 
into execution, ""—Hallam's Middle Ages, 



434 MedicBval History, 



The tunic was also worn by the nobles. The shoes were 
usually long and pointed, often made of purple cloth fringed 
with gold. Ladies wore very long robes with tight sleeves 
extending to the wrist, the body fitting close to the waist, 
and confined by a rich girdle. A wimple was usually worn 
round the face and chin, fastened at the forehead by a gold 
or jeweled fillet. 

29. All through the gloomy period of the Dark Ages, 
there was but little of learning or literature in any part of 
Germany. Charlemagne and a few of his suc- 
cessors took an interest in intellectual culture; 
but, with the exception of a few histories and 



Learning and 
literature. 



poems in Latin, or in some of the German dialects, nothing 
was written. Among these may be mentioned a Latin chroni- 
cle of the world, by Hermann the Cripple,* a scholar of 
extraordinary genius and learning, who lived in the reign of 
Henry IK. It was a monk named Conrad, in 
tlie service of Henry the Lion, who wrote the 
famous Song of Roland {Rolands-lied), in the twelfth cen- 
tury. About the same time (1150-1250), flourished the cele- 
brated 3Iin'7ie-sing-ers, or 'Move-poets" — the 
troubadours of Germany — whose poems aided in 



Conrad. 



] 



Minnesingers. 



the revival of European literature, f The Nibelung en-lied, a 
kind of epic poem in ballad form, belongs to this period. In 



* Hermann was a wonder. His body was wholly paralyzed; he could scarcely 
hold a pen, or speak intelligibly; yet his learning and sagacity made him an object 
of universal attention, people coming from different parts of Europe to converse 
with him. Hie Chronicle of the Six Ages of the World is a valuable work, especi- 
ally because of its history of Germany during the tenth and eleventh centuries. He 
also wrote a treatise on music, and one on the astrolabe, an instrument used in the 
Middle Ages for measuring the altitude of the heavenly bodies. 

t The name is derived from the old German word niinni, meaning love. They 
were contemporaneous with the house of Hohenstaufen, the kings of which line 
spoke the Suabian dialect, the richest and most musical in Germany. The poems 
of the Minnesingers were not all love-songs, but often commemorated heroic deeds 
and wonderful exploits. The names of about one hundred and fifty of these poets 
are preserved. Many princes and knights, Frederick II. for example, were proud 
to be classed among them. 



Germany. 



4B^ 



the fifteenth century arose in the cities tlie Meister singers, a 
kind of literary society or guild, whose composi- 
tions were chiefly of a humorous or satiric charac- 
ter. Hans Sachs, one of these, a shoemaker by trade, was the 



Meistersingers. 



most distinguished German poet prior to the Reformation. 

30, In the fifteenth century a stronger light began to pre- 
vail. During the long reign of Frederick the Pacific, there 
were many learned men eminent in various 
branches of science and literature, among whom 



may be mentioned Nicholas of Ousa (1401-1464), the son of 

a fisherman, who became one of 
the greatest scholars of his age; 
John Miiller (1436-1476), con- 
sidered the restorer of astron- 
omy; and Rudolf Agric'ola (1443- 
1485). Toward the end of the 
century, Copernicus, the reviver 
of the true theory of the solar 
system, was born; and Albert 
Duror commenced to be famous 
as a painter and engraver. The 
invention of printing gave an 
impulse to learning and literature which it had 
never before received. The credit of this inven- 
tion is contested by the Dutch in favor of Lau- 




Albert Durer. 



Invention of 
printing. 



reus Coster of Harlaem (1423), and by the Germans in behalf 
of John Gutenberg of Mentz (1436).* 

* Gutenberg, in 1450, entered Into partnership with John Faust, oij Fust, the 
latter furnishing the means of utilizing the invention ; and the work for printing 
the Bible in Latin was partly executed, when the partnership was dissolved, in 
1455. The next year, Gutenberg completed the printing of the Bible ; and in the 
mean time, Faust entered into partnership with Peter Schoeffer, his son-in-law, and 
also printed books. Coster seems to have been the first to invent the method of im- 
pressing characters on paper by means of blocks of carved wood, in 1423; while 
Gutenberg invented movable types, and Schoeffer, in conjunction with Faust, first 
founded types of metal. Thus Gutenberg is entitled to be considered the inventor 
of printing, and Schoeffer of type-founding. Faust was merely a patron, as he 
only furnished the means to carry on the work. 



436 



MedicBval History. 



Emperors of Germany, 

From Conrad I. (911) to Maximilian I (1493), 



Line. Name. Date of reign. 

Conradl 911- 918 

r Henry 1 918- 936 

cf I Otto 1 936- 973 

gi^ Otto II 973- C83 

«2« I Otto III 983-1002 

t Henry II 1002-1024 

i (Conrad II 1024-1039 

1 J Henry III 1039-1056 

c j Henry IV 1056-1106 

^ iHenryV 1106-1125 

f Lothaire II 1125-1137 

g Conrad HI 1138-1152 

o| I Frederick 1 1152-1190 

H \ Henry VI 1190-1197 

^1 Two reigns 1197-1215 

I I Frederick II 1215-1250 

(Conrad IV 1250-1254 



Line. Name. 

Interregnum 

f Rudolf I. Hapsburg. 

Adolf 

Albert I 

Henry VII 

Frederick of Austria . 
Louis V. of Bavaria. . 

.2 Gunther 

^ I Charles IV 

j Wenceslas 

1 Rupert 

"^ Sigismund 

i [Albert II 

1^ Frederick m 

< (Maximilian 



Date 



of reign. 
1254-1273 
127^-1291 
1292-1298 
1298-1308 
1309-1313 
1314-1330 
1314-1347 
1347-1349 
1347-1378 
1378-1400 
1400-1410 
1410-1437 
1438-1439 
1440-1493 
1493 



Summary of Principal Events and Dates. 

A.D. 

Carlovingian race becomes extinct 911 

Hungarians defeated by Henry the Fowler 934" 

Lombardy made a fief of the German Empire 961 

Otto the Great crowned Emperor of the West (Kaiser) 962 

Lower Burgundy annexed to the Empire of Germany by Conrad II 1033 

The Hungarian Empire made tributary to Germany 1044 

Bohemia added to the Empire 1045 

The king-elect of Germany was styled " King of the Romans" 1056 

Saxony invaded and overrun by Henry IV 1075 

Rome taken by Henry IV. ; Gregory driven into exile 1084 

Frederick Barbarossa defeated by the Italians at Lignano 1176 

The Italian cities gain their independence hj the peace of Constance 1183 

Prussia became a part of the German Empire 1230 

Execution of Konradin, the last of the Hohenstaufens 1268 

Insurrection of the Swiss cantons. Legend of William Tell 1308 

The Golden Bull issued by Charles III 1356 

Meeting of the Council of Constance 1414 

John Huss condemned and burnt at the stake for heresy 1415 

The Turks defeated at Nissa by Sigismund 1419 

The religious liberty of the Hussites in Bohemia acknowledged 1422 

Frederick HI. crowned kaiser by the Pope. The last king thus crowned 1452 

The Bible printed by Gutenberg and Faust 1455 



ISwitzerland. 437 



Barbaric 
invasions. 



SECTION 11. 

SWITZERLAN"D. 

31. Switzerland, anciently the land of the Helvetians, 
who were so terribly defeated by Csesar, like other parts of 
the Koman Empire, was overrun by the barbari- 
ans. In the tiftli century, the Alemanni, Goths, 
and Burgundians possessed different portions of 
the country; but, in the next century, these were conquered 
by the Franks, under whose sway . Christianity 
was generally established. It thus formed a part 
of the Frankish empire of Charlemagne. After the reign of 
Charles the Fat, the northern part of Switzerland became a 
part of the German Empire, and the southern portion was an- 
nexed to Burgundy. At first the land was held as a fief by 
the vassals of the crown; but, in course of time, 
the towns acquired great influence, some becom- 



Towns. 



Cantons, 



ing free cities of the empire. The three ancient cantons of 
Schwytz {shvUz), TJri (oo're), and Unterwalden 
{oon' ter-wal-den) , inhabited by descendants from 
Swedish immigrants, retained a certain degree of indepen- 
dence. 

32. Eudolf of Hapsburgy a Swiss baron, when he became 
emperor, favored the independence of the cantons; but his 
son Albert pursued an opposite policy, and undertook to an- 
nex Switzerland to Austria. The oppression of 
the Swiss by that emperor led to an uprising of 



Insurrection. 



the people and the expulsion of the Austrian bailiffs.* Leo- 
pold, the emperor's son, advancing into Switzerland with a 

* The leading men of the " forest cantons," whose dependence upon the empire 
had been for centuries only nominal, met in convention on the Rutli meadow, and 
adopted a solemn resolution to drive out the Austrian governors, whom they looked 
upon as foreign tyrants (1307), To this period belongs the story of William Tell. 
(See page 428.) 



498 Medimdal Mlsiorp. 

considerable army, was defeated by a small baud of Swiss at 
the narrow pass of Mor'gar-ten (1315). This was followed 
by a league of the cantons of Uri, Schwytz, and Untcrwal- 
den, to which others were afterward added; and, 
in 1352, the confederacy included eight cantons. 



Confederacy. 



The Austrians afterward renewed tlie war, and were again 
defeated at Sem'pach (1386), in a battle memor- 
able for the devotion of Arnold of Winkelried 



Sempach. 



{win'kel-reed), who, when his countrymen recoiled from the 
serried spears of the enemy, rushed upon them, burying them 
in his bosom, but making way for the Swiss host behind him.* 
33. In the following century, Switzerland had gained in 
strength; but it was severely tried by a civil war which. broke 
out among the cantons in 1436. This was followed by a 
struggle with Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
gundy, in which the Swiss gained two decisive 
victories (1476). The emperor Maximilian re- 



Contest with 

Charles the 

Bold. 



newedthe attempt to deprive the Swiss of their independence; 
but was defeated in six desperate battles (1499). 
This led to a treaty with Maximilian, by which 



Treaty. 



the independence of the cantons was finally established. This 
made the Swiss a nation; and, five new cantons being admit- 
ted to the confederacy, it assumed the form which it retained 
for two centuries. 

* The historian Van Mtiller thus describes the incident: " The hostile lines stood 
unbroken and firm. Sixty Swiss had already been slain. They feared the sudden 
effect of some unpereeived movement by the vanguard from the rear, or of some 
surprise by the troops of Bonstetten. This moment of delay and indecision was 
terminated by a man from the canton of Unterwalden, Arnold Strutthan of Winkel- 
ried, knight. He said to his companions, 'I'll make a lane for you,' leaped from 
out the ranks, called with a loud voice, ' Take care of my wife and children ; faith- 
ful, dear confederates, remember my race;' rushed upon the enemy, grasped some 
lances with his hands, buried them in his breast, and, being a very tall and strong 
man, he pressed them with him to the ground, as he sank down. Instantly his 
companions threw themselves over his body ; and all the hosts of the confederates, 
in succession, pressed on with the utmost force. The lines of the astonished enemy 
pressed one upon another to receive them ; whereby, through fear, haste, horror, 
and heat, many lords, wounded in their armor, were suffocated ; while large bands, 
hastening from the forests strengthened the forces of the Swiss," 



ttaly. m 



sectio:n- III. 

Italy. 

34. Northern Italy, by the defeat of the Lombards (774), 
passed under the rule of Charlemagne, who was, in 800, crowned 
at St. Peter's ^Emperor of the West, or Emperor 
of the Romans. After the battle of Eontenaille, 



Various events. 



it was assigned to his grandson Lothaire (843), whose descend- 
ants held the throne nearly fifty years (843-888). This 
period is noted for the invasion of southern Italy by the 
Saracens, who carried their victorious arms even to the gates 
of Rome. They held possession of a large part of the coun- 
try until they were expelled by the Normans (1016). 

35. Confusion and civil war followed the close of the Car- 
lo vingian dynasty in northern Italy, occasioned by the dis- 
putes of ambitious nobles for the throne, until 
Otto I. of Germany assumed the sovereignty of 



Civil war. 



the country (961). Erom this period the chief towns rapidly 
emerged into power and importance. The Lombard League 
was formed in 1167, and, in 1183, the cities secured 
their independence by the Peace of Constance. 



The bitter strife between the Guelphs and Ghibellines de- 
vastated the country for centuries, some of the cities favoring 
the Guelph interest, that is the interest of Italy and the popes 
against that of the emperor; others the Ghibelline, or impe- 
rial interest. Nevertheless, the republics of northern Italy 
attained a high degree of splendor and prosperity, which they 
continued to enjoy during the Middle Ages.* 

* These republics included : 1. The Lombard CiYtes— Milan, Cremona, Pavia, 
Brescia, Verona, Mantua, Padua, etc. ; 2. The Cities of Romagna— Bologna, Fer- 
rara, Modena, etc.; 3. The Tuscan Cities— Florence, Pisa, Lucca, etc.; 4. Genoa; 
and 5. Veiiice. Some of these cities were in the Guelph interest; others in the 
Ghibelline. There were frequent wars among these small states, and family feuds 
in the individual cities, such as that of the Capulets and Montagues in Verona, 
on which Shakespeare founded his play of Romeo and Juliet. 



440 



Mediceval History. 



Republic of Venice. 

36. Among these republics, Venice occupied a prominent 
place. Its foundation dates from the invasion of Italy bv 
Attila (452), who pillaged and destroyed the cities 
of the Veneti in northern Italy; and many of 



Early history. 



the inhabitants, taking refuge among the islands at the head 
of the Adriatic, founded there a settlement which for a time 
depended for its subsistence npon fishing and the 
manufacture of salt. It was called Ve-ne'zia. 



Later history. 



St, Mark. 



Between two and three centuries, it was a simple republic; but, 
in 697, the first doge (duke) was elected, an officer in whom 
was vested almost absolute authority. The republic was nom- 
inally subject to the Eastern Empire, and assisted it in defend- 
ing the Exarchate of Ravenna from the attacks of the Lom- 
bards. During the reign of Charlemagne (b09), it Avas attacked 
by the Franks, but defeated them with great loss. In the 
course of time, the central island, Rialto {re-ahl'to), was con- 
nected with the other islands by numerous bridges; and this 
city of bridges and canals, instead of streets, came to be gen-; 
erally known by its present name, Venice. A I 
short time after this, the Venetians took St. Mark 
as their patron saint, having, as is said, brought his body from] 
Alexandria (829).* 

37. During the next 250 years, the republic greatly in- 
creased in wealth, commerce, and naval power; and its ter-| 
ritorial dominions were augmented by the acqui- 
sition of Dalmatia, and some of the neighboring] 
provinces. In the First Crusade, the Venetians sent a fleet] 

* "After defeating Pepin, king of Italy (in 809), the Venetians made choice of I 
the largest island, the Riva Alia,- -Rialto— in the center of the Lagoons, where they j 
had secured their families and their wealth, and there they built the city of Venice, 
the capita,l of their republic. Some years later, they transported thither from 
Alexandria, in Egypt, the body of Saint Mark, the Evangelist, whom they chose 
patron of their state. His winged lion figured in their arms: and under his victori- 
ous banner they afterward raised their great colonial empire of the East."— A:oep-j 
pen's Middle Ages. 



Growth. 



Italy. 441 

of more than two hundred vessels to aid Godfrey of Bouillon 
(1099); and during the whole period of these expeditions, 
Venice was the great center of commerce, and the emporium 
by which the silks, spices, and gems of the East were dis- 
tributed to Europe. It was a prominent member of the 
League of Lombardy against Frederick Barbarossa; and, dur- 
ing the contest (in 1177), gained a splendid naval victory 
over the Ghibellines, under Otto, Frederick's son, in defense 
of the Pope, who had appealed to the republic for protection. 
It was after this victory that the ceremony of "wedding the 
Adriatic" was instituted, the Pope presenting the 
doge with a ring for the purpose. This cere- 
mony was always afterward performed with great 



Wedding the 
Adriatic. 



pomp and festivity, a ring being cast into the sea, to indicate 
that it was '^subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband." 
38. After the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders 
(1204), Venice having supplied a fleet, under the venerable 
Doge Dan'do-lo, received, as her share of the 
spoils, the Mo-re'a, and several other territories 



Dandolo. 



in Europe. The doge, although blind and ninety years of 
age, so distinguished himself that the Crusaders, in admira- 
tion of his prowess and skill, offered him the imperial crown, 
which he refused. During the latter half of the thirteenth 
century and most of the fourteenth, Venice was engaged in 
almost constant war with her great rival, Gen'o-a. 

39. In the latter part of the thirteenth century (1275), 
Mar'co Po'lo, the great Venetian traveler, crossed Asia, and, 
after visiting Tartary and China, returned home 
by way of the East Indies and the Persian Gulf. 



Marco Polo. 



The account which this traveler gave of the East did muoh to 
stimulate further adventure and exploration. After Genoa 
had passed away as an independent power (1396), Venice 
experienced her highest prosperity, and was the 
greatest maritime power in the world. She ac- 



H eight of glory 



quired by conquest, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, 



44^ MedicBval History. 

a large domain in northern Italy, and did important service 
to Europe by repelling the attacks of the Turkish fleets in the 
Mediterranean. Her wars, however, soon wasted her treas- 
ures and impaired her commerce; while her government be- 
came tyrannical and corrupt. When the new 
route to the East, by way of the Cape of Good 



Decline. 



Hope, was discovered (1497), her glory soon departed. 

Southern Italy. 

40. In the ninth century, southern Italy was invaded by 
the Saracens, against whom it was for a time defended by the 
armies of the Byzantine Empire. In the next 
century. Otto II. of Germany, having defeated 



Saracens. 



the Saracens, made himself master of Naples and Salerno, 
and finally of Tarentum. This so alarmed the Greek em- 
peror, that he formed an alliance with the Saracens; and, in 
the severe battle of Crotona, utterly defeated Otto, who with 
difficulty escaped from the hands of the victors. The Sara- 
cens held many of the most important places in southern 
Italy until they were expelled by the Normans, in the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries. 

41. These were a band of adventurers from Normandy, 
who at first rendered aid in expelling the Saracens from 
Salerno (1016). Being joined by others, they 
soon made a lodgment in the delightful regions 



Normans. 



of southern Italy, repeatedly defeating the vastly more numer- 
ous forces of the Eastern Empire. Their numbers were in-j 
creased by constant accessions from Normandy; and, in 1060, 
the renowned Robert Guis'card (or ghees-kar')] 
was acknowledged by the Pope Duke of Apu'liaj 



Guiscard 



and CahVbria, and of such other lands, in Italy and Sicily, as 
he might rescue from the Greeks and Saracens. This Norman] 
duke was, perhaps, the most accomplished soldier of his age;] 
and extended his conquests throughout southern Italy, thus 
putting an end to the long dominion of the Eastern emperors. 



Italy. 443 

42. He subsequently raised an immense army, officered by 
Norman knights, and attacked the other territories of the 
Eastern Empire. Durazzo (doo-rat'so) fell, after 
a siege of seven months, before his invincible 
skill and valor; and thence he marched his army 



Conquests of 
Guiscard. 



into the heart of the empire, making Constantinople itself 
tremble. He was, however, hastily recalled to Italy to pro- 
tect Pojie Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) against his 
inveterate foe, Henry IV. of Germany; and, rais- 



Hildebrand. 



ing a large army, he marched rapidly from Salerno to Rome, 
and compelled the German emperor to seek safety in retreat. 
It was with the faithful Robert Guiscard that the illustrious 
pontiff at last found an asylum at Salerno. 

43. Roger I., the brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered 
Sicily from the Saracens after several years of war; and his 
son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman posses- 
sions in both Sicily* and Italy, and subjugated 



Roger Guiscard. 



the free cities of Naples and Amal'fif (1127); but, in the 
person of AVilliam II., his grandson, the Norman 
dynasty became extinct, and the kingdom passed 
under the sway of the German emperors (1189). 



End of 
Norman rule. 



Thus it remained till the reign of Manfred, whom Charles of 
Anjou defeated in the battle of Beneven'to (1266), and thus 
obtained the throne of Naples and Sicily, which i ; 
he retained till the dreadful massacre of the I 
Sicilian Vespers (1282). By this event he lost Sicily; but 
transmitted Naples to his descendants, who retained the 
throne of that country till 1435, when it passed to the kings 



* Roger Guiscard was crowned king of the Two Sicilies at Palermo. He brought 
artisans from Athens, and founded a silk manufactory in that city in 1146. 

t A town on the Gulf of Salerno, southeast of Naples, noted for its extensive 
trade in the Middle Ages. "This httle republic rose, reached the height of its 
power, and declined, between the sixth and twelfth centuries. Its career as a free 
trading state was brilliant till checked by the arms of Roger Cuiscard, king of 
Sicily, from which time its splendor was lost." — Yeats' s Growth and Vicissitudes of 
Commerce. 



444 MeMcEval History, 



of Anison, who had ruled Sicily from the time of the Sicilian 
Vespers. 

44. Rome, or Papal Italy, was governed after the eighth 
century by the Popes, who, in succession, were elected to fill 
the chair of St. Peter. During a period of sixty -eight 
years (from 1309 to 1377) the Pope's residence was at Avig- 
non, in France. Rome, in the mean while, was 
the scene of constant disorder from the lawless 
acts of the great nobles, who prosecuted their 



Condition of 
Rome. 



family feuds with the utmost fury and license. Out of these 
struggles arose Rienzi {re-en' ze), the " Last of 
the Tribunes," who, in 1347, seized the chief 



Rienzi. 



power, and, having expelled the nobles, endeavored to restore 
the ancient liberties of the city. A counter-revolution over- 
turned his government after an existence of but seven months, 
and he was driven into exile. Rienzi was a friend of the 
famous poet Pe'trarch, and was distinguished for 
his learning and oratory.* Ancona, in Papal 



Italy, was one of the most important commercial cities in the 
peninsula at this period, f 

* " Never perhaps has the energy and effect of a single mind been more remark- 
ably felt than in the sudden, though transient, reformation of Rome by the tribune 
Rienzi. A den of robbers was converted to the discipline of a camp or convent: 
patient to hear, swift to redress, inexorable to punish, his tribunal was always 
accessible to the poor and stranger; nor could birth, or dignity, or the immunities 
of the Church protect the offender or his accomplices. The privileged houses, the 
private sanctuaries in Rome, on which no officer could presume to trespass, were 
abolished ; and he applied the timber and iron of their barricades in the fortifica- 
tions of the capitol. ... In this time (says the historian), the woods began to 
rejoice that they were no longer infested with robbers; the oxen began to plow; 
the pilgrims visited the sanctuaries; the roads and inns were replenished with 
travelers; trade, plenty, and good faith were restored in the markets; and a purse 
of gold might be exposed without danger in the midst of the highway. As soon as " 
the life and property of the subject are secure, the labors and rewards of industry 
spontaneously revive : Rome was still the metropolis of the Christian world; and. 
the fame and fortune of the tribune were diffused in every country by the strangers 
who had enjoyed the blessings of his government."— (r/foboji. 

t "Ancona, in the Papal States, was founded by the Syracusans about four cen- 
turies before Christ, and has ever been, next to Venice, the most considerable portr 
on the Adriatic coast of Italy. Its early eastern trade was chiefiy with Cyprus."—; 
Yeats. 



Italy. 445 



State of Society in Italy 

During the Middle Ages. 

45. The innumenibls invasions and revolutions to which 
Italy was subjected in the Middle Ages, introduced vast 
changes not only in the political condition of the 
country, but in the manners and customs, the 



Changes. 



arts, occupations, and language of the people. Out of the 
barbarism resulting from this ruin and disorder, 
a new civilization slowly emerged, having its 
origin and principal growth in the cities, par- 



New 

civilization. 



ticularly those of the north. The Lombard rule was, on 
the whole, favorable to this improvement. The 
feudal system prevailed, but it acquired a more 



Feudal syster 



exact and legal form in Italy than in other parts of Europe. 

46. The great commercial cities, Venice, Genoa, Florence, 
Ancona, and Amalfi, were the gateways not only 
of imported commodities, but of the civilization 
of the countries with which they were brought 



Commerce and 
manufactures. 



into communication. Manufactures were extensively carried 
on in all the cities of northern Italy; being in some the chief 
source of their wealth. In Florence this was especially true. 
Dyeing, and the nuiking of cloth, scarlet stuffs, silk fabrics, 
tapestries, straw hats, with artistic work in mosaic, metal, 
and alabaster, were prominent industries. Lombard capital- 
ists competed with the Jews as bankers and money-changers 
in every important city of Europe. Venice had, also, very 
numerous and extensive manufacturing industries. 

47. Architecture in Italy gradually passed from the old 
classic style to the Gothic; but this mode of building did not 
progress as rapidly in this as in many other parts 
of Europe. The splendid palaces and mansions 



Architecture. 



erected in Florence, Bologna, Genoa, and other cities, show 
wonderful taste and genius in this branch of art. The works 



446 Mediceval History. 

of the Roman architect Vi-tru'vi-iis * were printed at Rome 
in 1486; and the adoption of his system by the Italian archi- 
tects led to the arrangement of the Five Orders of Architec- 
ture. 

48. Many Byzantine artists passed into Italy, and intro- 
duced their various styles of painting and sculpture, thus 
laying, in the thirteenth century, at Venice, Pisa, 
and other cities, the foundation of the Italian 
schools of art. Sculpture, under Nicola Pisano 



Painting and 
sculpture. 



{ne'ko'lah 2^e-sah'no),\ took the lea^d in painting. The revival 
of painting, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, was 
greatly promoted by the celebrated Cimabue {che-mah-hoo'a) 
(1240-1300),! of Florence; but Italian painting more prop- 
erly begins with the next century. Giotto (jot'to) (1276- 
1336) was eminent not only as a painter, but an architect and 
a sculptor. In the fifteenth century, the fine arts made great 
progress, particularly in Florence, under the sway of the 
Medici. Leonardo da Vinci {vin'che)% painted his great pic- 
ture, " The Last Supper," at the close of the mediaeval i)eriod 
(1497). He was noted for the universality of his genius. 

49. The Italian literature dates from the thirteenth cen- 
tury, previous to which time there were dialects more or less 



* Vitruvius. or more properly Marcus Vitruvius PoUio, lived in the time of Augus- 
tus, by whom he was greatly admired and patronized as an architect. He wrote 
an elaborate work, On Architecture, arranged in ten books. A second edition of 
this work was printed at Florence in 1496, and a third at Venice in 1497. It treats in 
detail of the four orders of architecture. 

t Pisano, born about 1300, inaugurated the revival of sculpture in Italy, He 
executed many magnificent works not only in sculpture, but in architecture. He 
died in 1378. 

^ Giovanni Cimabue took the lead in the restoration of painting. Having studied 
under Byzantine masters, he soon laid aside their fixed, traditional methods, and 
by boldly adopting the style dictated by his own genius, gave life and individuality 
to his works. His church frescos were much admired. He is called by some "the 
father of modern painting." Giotto was his greatest pupil. 

§ Leonardo da Vinci was bom at Vinci, near Florence, in 1452. He was emi- 
nent not only as a painter, but as a sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist. 
His pictures are classed with those of Raphael and Michael Angelo, who lived in 
the succeeding period. He died in 1519. 



Italy, 447 

closely resembling the Latin language, such as the Tuscan, 
the Venetian, the Neapolitan, etc. Of these, the 
Tuscan might claim a superiority in many respects. 



Literature. 



Classical Italian literature commenced in Florence under 
the influence of the Troubadours; and the common language 
began to take the place of Latin. Among the writers of this 
century, Dante {dan/ to) (1265-1321) may justly be 
given pre-eminence. This world-renowned poet 



Dante. 



had political as well as literary distinction, being the chief 
magistrate of his native city, Florence. He was, however, 
banished by its factious citizens; and while living in exile 
wrote his great poem, the Divi'na Comme'dia, published just 
before his death. 

60. A little later, Pe'trarch (1304-1374) wrote his 8o7inets, 
classed among the most melodious and beautiful compositions 
in the Italian language; and in the same period 
Boccaccio {bole-hat' cho) (1313-1375) wrote the 



Noted writers. 



romances and tales called the Decam'eron, noted for its ele- 
gant style. The fourteenth century is deemed the greatest 
era of Italian literature; in the next, flourished the poet 
Ar-i-os'to (born in 1474), the author of the romance poem 
Orlan'do Furio'so, and the famous statesman and author 
Macchiavelli (mak-e-ali-veVle), born in Florence (1469). 
The latter part of the century was enriched by the galaxy of 
genius that encircled their great patron at Florence, Lorenzo 
de' Medici, styled. the Magnificent. The first printing-press 
was set up in Italy in 1465. 

61. At the end of the tenth century, was born Guide 
(gtoe'do) of Arezzo (ah-ret'so), who is considered the father 
of the modern system of music. He invented the 
staff and the art of solfa-ing, and greatly im- 



Music. 



proved the system of musical notation in use in his time.* 

* " The tradition is, that while chanting a hymn in honor of St. John, he was 
struck with the gradual and regularly ascending tones of the opening syllables of 
each hemistich in the three first verses, and discerned at once their fitness for a 



448 MedicBval History. 

Italy and Germany took the lead in music during the remain- 
ing periods of the Middle Ages, as they have continued to do in 
subsequent times. 



SECTION IV. 

Spain" an^d Portugal. 



52. On the conquest of Spain by the Saracens, the Chris- 
tians, who were the remnant of the Visigothic kingdom, took 
refuge in the mountainous districts of As-tu'ri-as, 
and founded a new kingdom under their leader 
Pe-la'yo. For centuries they and their descend- 



Christian 
kingdoms. 



ants waged an almost incessant warfare upon the Mos'lems, 
or Mohammedans; and new kingdoms came into existence as 
the country was gradually recovered. Of these, Ar'a-gon and 
Castile {cas-teeV) were the chief. In 1212 these 
different kingdoms combined their forces, and 



Tolosa. 



gained at To-lo'sa * one of the greatest victories ever achieved 

by the Christians over their Moslem foes. 

53. After this battle the Saracen power rapidly declined, 

and that of Castile and Aragon steadily increased. The most 
celebrated of the Castilian monarchs were Al- 
fon'so X., noted for his learning, and particu- 
larly for his love of astronomy. (1252-1282); Peter 



Castile and 
Aragon. 



the Cruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin and the Black 

system of solfeggio. On introducing his new theory to the choir, it proved emi- 
nently successful, and was gladly adopted. The words of the hymn in Latin are: 

English. 
Ut queant laxis Ut-tered be thy wondrous story 

7?e-sonare fibris i?e-prehensible though I be, 

Mi-ro gestorum Me make mindful of thy glory, 

Fa-rauli tuorum, iJ'a-mous son of Zebedee ; 

Sal-ye polluti Sol-ace to my spirit bring, 

La-bii reatum, ia-boring thy praise to sing." 

Sancte Johannes. 
* Tolosa is in the northern part of Spain, on the Bay of Biscay. 



Spain and Portugal. 



A.4Q 



Prince; and Henry, his successor, who was defeated at Na- 
varrete {^lali-var-ra'ta) by the Black Prince, and deposed. 
The smaller kingdom of Aragon acquired extensive foreign 
possessions, the chief of which were Sicily, Naples, and Sar- 
dinia. Under the reign of Ferdinand the Cath- 
olic, who married Isabella, queen of Castile, both 



Union. 



these kingdoms were united (1479); and from this date com- 
menced the real greatness of Spain. 




The 

SpAMSH KI^GDOMS 
About 



Geographical Study. 
Whattvasthe situation of : XKA.Goti'i Castile and Leon? Granada? Navarre? 
Portugal? Old Castile? New Castile? Asturias? Gallicia? Catalonia? 
Zaragosa? Barcelona? Pampeluna? Toledo? Cordova? Seville? 

54. Ferdinand for ten years carried on a fierce war against 
the Moorish kingdom of Granada {grali-nah'dah), in southern 
Spain, the only remnant of the Saracenic power in the Penin- 



450 



MedicBval History. 



8ula. 



War with 
Granada. 



After a long siege, the famous fortress Alhambra 
was surrendered; and Boabdil, the ^^last of 
the Moors," was allowed to retire, his subjects 
being free to sell their property and leave Spain, 



Conquest of 
the Moors. 



or to remain under their own laws, customs, and magistrates, 
but tributary to Castile (1492). The Jews, how- 
ever, were expelled; and Ferdinand, in thus 
driving out thousands of his most industrious 

and enterprising subjects, inflicted a severe blow on the 
prosperity of the kingdom. The year 1492 is 
also memorable for the discovery of America by 



Columbus. 



Christopher Columbus, who had sailed under the patronage 

of Queen Isabella. 

Portugal. 

55. This kingdom was previously a part of Castile; but, m 
1095, King Alfonso VI. granted it to his son-in-law, Henry of 
Burgundy, who was to rule as a vassal. Henry's 
son and successor, Alfonso, gained a great vic- 
tory over the Saracens, and, throwing off his allegiance 
to Castile, made Portugal an independent kingdom (1139). 
This led to a fierce contest with Castile, which 
lasted for a long time ; but ended in favor 



Early history. 



Independence. 



of the Portuguese, who were governed for more than tw( 
centuries by the descendants of Alfonso, whom they had 
chosen for his virtues and his valor. 

56. Alfonso III. extended the kingdom to its preseni 
limits, by the conquest of Al-gar've, the most southern pro- 
vince, Avhich he wrested from the Moors, after a contest o1 
three years (1252). During the reign of John, 
Prince Henry, the Navigator, one of the wisest 



Prince Henry. 



and best men of his age, planned and directed several voyagei 
in order to explore the coast of Africa, and di 
cover a passage around it to the Indies. Undei 
John II., Bartholomew Diaz (de'az) reached th 
stormy cape" at the extremity of the continent (1486), t< 



Diaz and 
Da Gama. 



Spain and Portugal. . 451 

which the king of Portugal gave the name of Good Hope; 
and, in 1497, Vas'co da Ga'ma doubled this cape, and suc- 
ceeded in sailing to India. This voyage and that of Columbus 
revolutionized the commerce of the world. 

Progress of Civilization in Spain and Portugai. 

67. The greatest advancement in civilization reached in 
these centuries was during the dominance of the great Moor- 
ish kingdom, the center of which was at Cordova. 
Eeference has already been made to this (see 



Moors. 



page 43). Christian civilization did not begin to make any 
progress of importance till the reign of Ferdi- 
nand; and, therefore, an account of it properly 



Christians. 



belongs to the period of modern history. The last twenty 
years of the fifteenth century were distinguished 
by the maritime enterprises of the Portuguese; 
and Spain became identified with maritime discov- 



Maritime 
discovery. 



eries even more astounding. Barcelona was noted for its ex- 
tensive commerce during the whole period of the Middle Ages. 
58. In Spain, as in Italy, there were various dialects 
spoken in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, besides the 
native Basque language and the Arabic. The 
modern Spanish language is based upon the old 
Castilian dialect, in which were written the earli- 



Language and 
literature. 



est specimens of Spanish literature, consisting of heroic bal- 
lads and romances, mostly relating to the exploits of the Cid, 
the most renowned of the legendary heroes of Spain; also a 
rhymed chronicle of this personage, written in the thirteenth 
century. The earliest prose writers were monks and priests. 
In the reign of Alfonso X., there was a great literary revival; 
the king himself wrote several poems, and caused translations 
of foreign works to.be made into Castilian. There were many 
Castilian writers in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 
but neither Spanish nor Portuguese literature reached any 
important development till a later period. 



CHAPTER yill. 

Southeastern Europe. 

1. In" connection with the history of the Eastern Empire, 
reference has been made to several conquering races that, 
from time to time, invaded its dominions, with 
varying success; as the Bulgarians, Magyars or 



Races. 



Hungarians, Slavonians, Russians, and Turks. Some of these 
succeeded in establishing independent states that existed for 
a longer or shorter time, among which the most 
important were Bulgaria, Servia, Hungary, Bos- 



states. 



nia, and, finally, the great Ottoman Empire, into which 
most of them were absorbed. Of each of these a brief sketch 
will here be given. 

Bulgaria. 

2. The Bulgarians, a Turanian race, emigrated in two 
divisions from their homes near the Caspian Sea, one found- 
ing a power (Great or White Bulgaria) on the 
Volga River, and the other passing, in the fifth 



Bulgarians. 



'century, to the west, where finally they established a kingdom 
(Black Bulgaria), in 680. This latter branch of 
the race had come into collision with the Avars 



Bulgaria. 



and Slavs, and been assimilated by the latter to such an 
extent, that this western Bulgarian power is historically 
Slavic, or Slavonic* Christianity was introduced into this 
kingdom in the middle of the ninth century. In the latter 

* "The modern Bulgarians bear the Bulgarian name only in the way in which 
the Romanized Celts of Gaul bear the name of their Frankish masters from Ger- 
many, and in which the Slavs of Kief and Moscow bear the name of their Russian 
masters from Scandinavia. In all three cases, the power formed by the union of 
conquerors and conquered has taken the name of the conquerors, and has kept the 
speech of the conquered."— Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe. 



Southeastern Europe. 



453 



part of this century, the Bulgarian Kingdom was overturned 
by the Eussians. 

3. In the middle of the tenth century, there was a great 
revival of the Greek power; and Bulgaria was re-annexed to 
the empire, making the Danube again its boundary; and 












^pxia ^' xi jfrj:;,"/ 



£IDEastern Empire ;:^::~^^^^^^^^^ ", 



Geographical Study, 
"What xmis the situation of: Bulgaria? Hungary? Servia? Roum? Where 
were the Cumans? What was the extent of the Eastern Empire? What was the 
situation of Belgrade? Hadrianople? Nicomedia? Nicaea? Ephesus? Philadelphia? 

thus it remained for more than two hundred years. Then a 
revolt occurred, and a second Bulgarian kingdom 
was formed, extending southward to Thessaly 
and Epirus; but this was again subdued by the 



Second and 
third kingdoms. 



empire in the eleventh century (1018). Once more was the 
Bulgarian kingdom revived by an insurrection against the 



454 



MedicBval History. 



imperial authority (1187), and retained its independence till 
its conquest by the Ottomans, in the latter part of the four- 
teenth century, after their great victory at Cossova (1390). 

Servia. 

4. The country that received this name was under Byzan- 
tine rule till the early part of the seventh century, when it 
was devastated by the Avars, who were afterward 
driven out by a Slavonic race called the Serbs, or 
Servians. These people had. been hving previously in the 



Early history. 




I SouTHEASTERis Europe AND Asia Minor 1354 A.D. f 
Geographicat. Stttdt, 
What were the situation and boundaries of: Servia? Bulgaria? Wallachia? 
Bosnia? Croatia? Where was the kingdom of Sicily? Hungary? The Dobrutcha? 
What was the extent of the Eastern Empire at this time? Of the Turkish domin- 
ions? To what did Trebizond belong? Armenia? What was the capital of the 
Greek Empire? 

region north of the Carpathian mountains, which they had 
left at the instigation of the Greek emperor, to give assist- 
ance against the Avars. For some time Servia continued in 
vassalage to the Eastern Empire; but subsequently it became 
subservient to Bulgaria, till the conquest of the latter (1018). 



Southeastern Europe. 455 

6. It became anindeiiendent principality about the middle 
of the eleventh century (1043), and allied itself to Hungary 
against the empire; but its ruler Avas not crowned 
king until the commencement of the thirteenth 
century (1217). About the middle of the next 



Independent 
kingdom. 



century, it made extensive conquests, and soon comprehended 
Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, northern Greece, and a part of 
Bulgaria (see map). Its ruler at this time took an imperial 
crown, with the title of Emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks. 
This was the height of its glory; for under subsequent rulers 
it fell to pieces; and in the latter part of the century, was 
overwhelmed by the Ottomans. Servia was not, however, 
permanently annexed to the Turkish Empire till 1521. 

Hungary. 

6. The Magyars or Hungarians, also a Turanian race, like 
the Bulgarians, made their way from their home between the 
mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube rivers, and 
founded, in the ninth century, a kingdom on the 



Magyars. 



north bank of the latter river (887). They were an active 
and warlike people; but their bold incursions were repressed, 
on the east by the Greek Empire, and on the west by the 
German emperors (934 and 955). From the beginning of the 
eleventh century, Hungary ranks as a kingdom 
of Latin Christianity, and after that time it grew 
in all directions. It made a permanent conquest 



Kingdonn of 
Hungary. 



of Croatia and Transylvania. The Turanian Cumans ad- 
vanced to the Danube; but, in the thirteenth century, the 
Mongolian invasion swept them away, and for a 
time crushed the Hungarian power. The rem- 
nant of the Ouman nation continued to exist 



Mongol 
invasion. 



under Magyar rule, giving to the Hungarian monarch the 
additional title of King of Cumania. 

7. The greatest extension of the Hungarian dominion was 
in the fourteenth century, during the reign of the Angevin 



Louis the Great. 



456 MedicBval History. 

king, Louis the Great (1342-1382). He took Dalmatia from 
the Venetians, and reduced Wallacliia, Moldavia, 
Bosnia, and Bulgaria to a state of dependence. 
In 1370, by right of succession, he became King of Poland, and 
thus became the ruler of an empire stretching from the Baltic 
to the Adriatic. On his death, Poland was detached from 
Hungary ; and the latter, by the marriage of 
Mary, eldest daughter of Louis, to Sigismund, 



Later history, 



became united to Germany (1411). Hungary was subse- 
quently again independent ; and under its heroic kings 
Hunyadi and Matthias, recovered its strength, and extended 
its sway.* During the fifteenth century it waged incessant 
wars with the Ottomans, especially during the first half, pre- 
vious to the fall of Constantinople. 

Bosnia. 

8. Bosnia was formed as an independent state by a Slavic 
irruption in the seventh century; but it maintained, for a 
considerable time, only an uncertain and change- 
ful independence. In the twelfth and thirteenth 



History. 



centuries, it was under the Hungarian sway; and, in the 
next (1339), it passed to ths Servian Empire, to which it 
belonged for some time, when it again became independent 
(1370). It was under the last Bosnian dynasty, commencing 
in 1376, on the breaking up of the empire of Servia, that it 
acquired a real position among European powers ; for it 
promised at one time to take the place of that fallen empire. 
Its greatness was, however, shattered at Cossova, with other 
Christian powers; and it finally succumbed to the sway of 
the Ottomans, becoming a province of their vast empire in 
1463, but not permanently annexed to it until 1528. 

* " Later in the fifteenth century came another day of Hungarian greatness 
under the son of Hunyady and Matthias Corvinus. Its most distinguishing feature 
was the extension of the Magyar power to the west, over Bohemia and its depend- 
encies, and even over the Austrian archduchy. In the southeastern lands, Walla- 
chia and Moldavia again became Hungarian dependencies."— Freeman, 



Southeastern Europe. 



457 



Ottoman or Turkish Empire. 

9, Of all the different conquering races that poured into 
Europe from the north of the Euxine or Black Sea, the most 
terrible were the Turkish hordes, first the Seljuks 
and then the Ottomans.* The attacks of the 



Turks. 



Ottomans on the Eastern Empire, and the successive con- 




Geographical Study. 
What were the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire in 1260? What was the situa- 
tion of Bosnia? Wallachia? Bulgaria? Roumelia? Albania? Morea? Hungary? 
Slavonia? Croatia? Dalmatia? To whom did Dalmatia belong? 

quests which they made of its territories, have already been 
referred to. The Ottomans were originally a 
Tiirkish band who served the Seljuk sultan 



Origin. 



against the Mongols; and subsequently, as the vassals of that 



* "Most of these invading races have passed away from history; three stUl re- 
main in three different stages. The Bulgarian is lost among the Aryan people, 
who have taken his name. The Magyar abides, keeping his non-Aryan language, 
but adopted into the European commonwealth by his acceptance of Christianity. 
The Ottoman Turk still abides on European soil, unchanged because Mahometan, 
still an alien alike to the creed and to the tongue^ of Europe."— i^reeman. 



458 MedicBxal Bistory. 

monarch, they became a power in Asia, and soon afterward 

passed into Euroj^e. 

10. When Am'urath, the successor of Othman, had fixed 

his capital at Adrian ople, in the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, he had already in fact hemmed in the 
Greeks at Constantinople; and, under Bajazet, 



Conquests. 



the first Ottoman prince who bore the title of Sultan, the 
Ottoman dominions in Europe extended from the Danube 
Eiver to the iEgean Sea, thus including Bulgaria, Macedonia, 
Thessaly, and Thrace. Servia and Wallachia were dependent 
states; and central and southern Greece, with Bosnia, Hun- 
gary, and other western lands, were open to the ravages of 
these Mohammedan conquerors. 

11. But a mightier power than even the Ottomans was at 
hand to check their career. This was the Tartar horde under 
Timour, and the great Turkish dominion was for 
a time broken to pieces.* The Christian states 
_ enjoyed a respite from attack, and* the sons of 
the defeated and captive Bajazet were contented to restore to 
the empire some portions of its lost territory. In the early 
part of the fifteenth century, the tide of Ottoman conquest 
turned again; and, under Mohammed the Conqueror (1451- 
1481), made rapid progress. It was during the 
thirty years of his reign, especially after the 
taking of Constantinople, that the Turkish do- 



Timour the 
Tartar. 



Later 
conquests. 



minion was fully and firmly established as a great power in 
Europe. [For the extent of its territory in this reign, see 
map, p. 457.] The further development of this empire will be 
given in connection with modern history. . 

* Timour, or Tamerlane, was born not far from Samareand. At an early age he 
rose to great eminence in his native country, and was invested with imperial au- 
thority. With insatiable ambition, he aspired to the dominion of the world. After 
many victories in Persia, Tartary, and India, he turned his attention to the Ottomans 
who, under Bajazet, were making great conquests. The latter collected an army 
of 400,000 men ; but he met with a terrible defeat, and fled from the scene of the 
conflict on a fleet horse (1402). He was, however, pursued and captured; and it is 
said was kept for a time by his conqueror in an iron cage. (See page 310.) 





Table of Contemporaneous Events. 


A.D. 


England. 


FBAKCE. 


Other Nations. 


TR*^ 




Victory of Charles Martel. 
End of Merov. dynasty. 
Accession of Charlemagne.. 


Period 


7^'^ 




of the 


768 
786 


The Saxon 
Heptarchy. 


Saracen Conquests. 


800 


Empire of the West restored 
Death of Charlemagne. 

Div.ofCharlemagne's empire 

Charles the Fat. 




sn 






827 
818 


Egbert, King of England 


Louis Emp. of Germany, 


871 
884 


Alfred the Great. 


910 




Fatimite dynasty begins. 


912 




Normans settle in France. 


9m 




Otho the Great. 


987 
996 
1013 
1017 


Sweyn. 


Hugh Capet. 
Robert. 


The Normans in Italy. 


1081 




Henry I. 


1043 
1055 


Edwai'd the Confessor. 


Seljuks take Bagdad. 
Henry IV. of Germa.ny. 
Robert Guiscard. 


1056 






1060 




Philip I 


1066 
1076 


Willi a,m the Conqueror. 






1084 






Hildebrand deposed. 


1087 
1095 


William Rufus. 


First Crusade. 

Louis VI. 
Louis VII. 


1100 
1108 


Henry I. 




1187 






1152 






1154 
1176 


Henry ii. 




Battle of Legnano. 


1180 




Philip II. (Augustus). 


1187 





Saladin takes Jerusalem 


1189 
1199 
1216 
1'«8 


Richard I. 
John. 
Henry III. 


Louis Vni. 
Louis IX. 




V^M 







1t>58 




End of Saracen Empire. 


V^70 




Philip m. 


1^?7'^, 


Edward I 


Mongols take Iconium. 


1^85 




Philip IV. 
Louis X. 


1307 
1314 
1815 




Edward II. 

Battle of Bannockburn. . 


Battle of Morgarten. 


1317 




PhiHp V. 
Charles IV. 

PhUip VI. 


18?,i^ 






1327 
1.8'?8 


Edward HI. 




1347 




Rienzi. 


1850 




John. 
Charles V. 

Charles VI. 




1864 






1377 
1880 


Richard n. 




1386 




Battle of Sempach. 
Battle of Nicopolis. 


1896 






1399 
1413 
1414 


Henry IV 
Henry V. 




1 4'>'^ 


Henry VI 


Charles VII, 




1453 




Constantinople taken. 


1461 
1483 


Edward IV. . 


Louis XI. 
Charles VOX. 


Edward V. Richard UI. 





460 



MedicBval History. 



Topical Keyiew. 



EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Who were they? 

At what period did they live? 

With what events connected? page 

Peter the Hermit 408, 409 

Urbanll 408 

Godfrey of Boviillon 409 

Noureddin 411, 412 

Saladin 412, 413 

Cotint Baldwin of Flanders 413 

Dandolo 418, 441 

Otto the Illustrious 418 

Henry the Fowler 419 

Otto the Lion 420 

Otto the Red King 420 

Otto the Wonder 421 

Sylvester H 421 

Otto the Lame 421 

Henry the Black King 422 

Henry the Great 423 

Hildebrand (Gregory VH.) 423, 443 

Frederick Barbarossa 412, 425 

Konradin ; 426 

Rudolf of Hapsburg 427, 437 

Albertl 427, 437 

William Tell 428 

The Pope's Kaiser 428, 429 

Rienzi 429, 444 

Sigismund of Hungary 429 

John Huss 429 

Jerome of Prague 430 

John Zisca 430 

Frederick the Pacific 430 

Winifred or Boniface 431 

Herman the Cripple 434 

HansSachs 435 

Nicholas of Cusa 435 

John MuUer 435 

Rudolf Agricola 435 

Albert Durer 435 

Arnold of Winkelried 438 

Marco Polo <■ 441 

Robert Guiscard 442 

Rogerl 443 

Petrarch 444, 447 

Dante 426, 447 

Nicola Pisano , 446 



PAGE 

Cimabue 446 

Giotto 446 

Leonardo da Vinci 446 

Boccaccio 447 

Ai-iosto 447 

Lorenzo the Magnificent 447 

Macchiavelli 447 

Arezzo 447 

Pelayo 448 

Ferdinand the CathoHc 449 

Boabdil 450 

Queen Isabella 449, 450 

Prince Henry the Navigator 450 

Bartholomew Diaz 450 

Hunyadi 456 

Mohammed the Conqueror : 458 

Bajazet 458 

GREAT EVENTS. 

When did they occur? 

What led to them? 

What were the consequences? 
Preaching of Crusades.. 408, 411, 412, 414 

Taking of Jerusalem 410 

Children's Crusade 414 

Captivity of St. Louis 415 

Battle of Fontenaille, 418, 419 

Defeat of the Hungarians 419, 420 

Poland made a kingdom 421 

Taking of Weinsburg 424 

Battle of Legnano 425 

Independence of the Italian Cities. . 426 

Revolt of the Swiss 428 

Growth of the Free Cities 428, 432 

Issue of the Golden Bull 429 

Battle of Nissa 430 

Revolt of the Hussites 430 

Introduction of Christianity 431 

Union of the Hanse towns 432 

Invention of Printing 435 

Battle of Morgarten 438 

Lombard League 439, 441 

Foundation of Venice 440 

Discovery of Cape of Good Hope.442, 450 

Battle of Benevento 443 

Expulsion of the Jews from Spain . . 450 



No. 16: 



Orkney C~ |lslands 




11. MODERI^ HISTORY. 



CHAPTER IX. 

England, 

From 1485 to the Present Time. 



SECTION I. 
The Tudor Line. 



1. Henry VII. With the accessiou of this king the long 
civil wars, by which the country had been devastated for so 
many years, were brought to an end. Henry was 
the son of Edmund Tu'dor and Margaret, a de- 



Descent. 



scendant of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. In order to 
strengthen his title to the throne, and put an end to all 
dissensions between the rival families, he mar- 
ried Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. To 



Marriage. 



remove all competition for the crown, he imprisoned in the 
Tower the young Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clar- 
ence, and grandson of the renowned king-maker. 

2. The general favor felt toward the house of York occa- 
sioned Henry much trouble, and many plots and insurrections 

Geographical, Study, Map No. 'SMT. 
What is the situation of : Dover? Portsmouth? Canterbury? Winchester? Sahs- 
bury? Shoreham? Windsor? Plymouth? Torbay? Taunton? Exeter? Sedgemoor? 
Bath? Bristol? Newbury? Gloucester? Cardiff? Milford? Caernarvon? Worcester? 
Tewksbury? Evesham? Worcester? Edgehill? Naseby? Northampton? Cambridge? 
Fotheringay? Norwich? Oxford? Bosworth? Shrewsbury? Derby? Nottingham? 
Manchester? Hull? York? Towton? Marston Moor? Durham? Carlisle? Preston 
Pan? Dunbar? Stirling? Falkirk? Glencoe? Inverness? Culloden? 



462 Modern History. 



were formed against him. A rumor having been circulated 
among the people that Warwick had escaped from the Tower, 
an attempt was made to personate him; and for this purpose 
a handsome youth, named Lambert Simnel, a 
baker's son, was chosen. The impostor was car- 



Simnel. 



ried to Ireland, and was there proclaimed king under the title 
of Edward VI. (1487). The king prevented the insurrection 
from spreadina: in England by exhibiting in public the real 
Earl of Warwick; and the adherents of the impostor, having 
landed in England, were defeated in a decisive battle by the 
king's troops (1487). Simnel, being taken prisoner, was par- 
doned, and was afterward employed as a domestic in the 
king's household. 

3. Five years afterward, a more formidable attempt was 
made by the enemies of the king to raise a pretender to the 
throne, by counterfeiting Kichard, the younger of the two 
sons of Edward IV., who were said to have been smothered in 
the Tower. The person selected for this purpose was a young 
man named Perkin Warbeck; and so well did he 
play his part, that Margaret, Duchess of Bur- 
gundy, sister of Edward IV., acknowledged him 



♦"erkin 
Warbeck. 



as her nephew, and greeted him with the title of the White 
Rose of England.^ James IV., king of Scotland, also ac- 
knowledged him, and gave him the noble Lady Gordon in 
marriage, and invaded England in order to raise an insurrec- 
tion in his favor. The attempt, however, failed; and Perkin 
finally gave himself up, and was imprisoned in the Tower 

* " Margaret was second sister to King Edward the Fourth, and had been second 
wife to Charles surnamed the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, by whom having no 
children of her own she did with singular care and tenderness intend the education 
of Philip and Margaret, grandchildren to her former husband ; which won her great 
love and authority among the Dutch. This princess (having the spirit of a man and 
the malice of a woman), abounding in treasure by tlie greatness of her dower and 
her provident government, and being childless and without any nearer cares, made 
it her design and enterprise to see the Majesty Royal of England once again re- 
placed in her house; and had set up King Henry as a mark at whose overthrow all 
her actions should aim and shoot; insomuch as all the counsels of his succeeding 
troubles came chiefly out of that quiver."— J5acon.'s Reign of Henry VII, 



England. 463 



(1497). There, becoming acquainted with the Earl of War- 
wick, he phmned with him an escape, but the plot was dis- 
covered, and both were executed, Perkin being hanged at 
Tyburn, and the unfortunate prince beheaded, on a charge of 
treason (1499). By this act of cruelty, Henry destroyed the 
last male descendant of the Plantagenets. 

4. Henry was a prudent monarch, and very much averse 
to war, because it prevented the gratification of his ruling 
passion, avarice. In order to increase his hoards, 
he resorted to the most unjust and tyrannical 
exactions. His treasures amounted at his death 



Wealth of the 
king. 



to nearly two millions sterling — an enormous sum for that 
period. He died after a reign of twenty-four years, and was 
succeeded by his son Henry (1509). During the reign of 
Henry VII., the celebrated navigators, John and 
Sebastian Cab'ot, set sail from Bristol under a 



Cabots. 



commission from the king, and discovered the mainland of 
North America (1497). It was not until the year after this 
that Columbus, in his third voyage, reached the mainland of 
America. Henry built a large vessel which he named the 
Great Harry, thus laying the foundation of the English navy. 
6. Henry VIII, when he ascended the throne, was only 
eighteen years of age, and was handsome, affable, and popu- 
lar. During the first year of his reign, he mar- 
ried Catharine of Aragon, aunt of the Emperor 



Marriage. 



Charles V., to whom he had been betrothed since his eleventh 
year. This princess had been previously married to his elder 
brother Arthur, a youth of sixteen years, who died a few 
months after the marriage. Henry made a special favorite of 
Thomas Wolsey (wooVze), and advanced him suc- 
cessively to the highest honors, though he was of 
very humble origin, being, as it is said, the son of a butcher. 
Wolsey had, however, received an excellent education, and 
was a man of very great talents. He was afterward made a 
cardinal by the Pope, and himself aspired to be pope. 



Wolsey. 



464 



Modern History. 



6. Heury joined the league which was formed against 
France by Spain, Venice, and the Pope; and, having invaded 
France at the head of 50,000 men, he routed the 
French in the celebrated Battle of the Spurs, 
so called from the rapid flight of the enemy 



Defeat of the 
French. 



(1513). In this campaign, the Emperor Maximilian enlisted 
in Henry's nriny, and received pay as one of his subjects and 




Ship in which Henry VIII. embarked in 1520 for France. 

captains. In the same year, James IV., king of Scotland, 
having invaded England with a large army, was defeated by 

the Earl of Surrey in the battle of Flodden Field; 

and the king himself, with the flower of the 



Flodden Field. 



Scottish nobility, was left dead on the field.* The French 

* The Scots would not believe that their king was slain, asserting that the body 
which was taken to London and interred as his. was in reality that of one Elphin- 
ston, who, to deceive the English, was arrayed in arms resembling the king's 



England, 465 



king, Francis I., desirous of effecting an alliance with Eng- 
land, planned a meeting with Henry, which took place near 
Calais, at what was called, from the gorgeousness of the dis- 
play made, the ^' Field of the Cloth of Gold" (1520). 

7. Martin Luther having caused great excitement in Europe 
by the promulgation of his doctrines, Henry VIH., who had 
been carefully educated in the Roman faith, wrote 
a treatise against them, and dedicated it to the 



Pope (Leo X.), who, as a recompense, conferred on the royal 
author the title of Defender of the Faith (1521). A few years 
after this, Henry applied to the Pope (Clement VII.) for a 
divorce from Queen Catharine, professing to have some doubts 
of the lawfulness of a marriage with his brother's 
widow; while the real reason was that he desired 



Anne Boleyn. 



Wolsey's fall. 



to marry Anne Boleyu (cm 'buVen)^ an attendant of the queen, 
with whom he had become enamored (1527). 

8. Clement, unwilling to grant the request of the English 
monarch, put him off from time to time, thus keeping him in 
a state of suspense. The king's anger was first 
vented upon his great minister, Wolsey, to whose 
insincerity or neglect he attributed the disappointment of his 
wishes. Accordingly, the cardinal was dismissed from his 
high office, banished from court, and deprived of many of 
his great possessions. Being resolved upon his entire ruin, 
the king afterward caused him to be arrested on a charge of 
treason; but death saved the proud cardinal from any further 
disgrace* Among his last words was the well-known excla- 
mation, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served 
the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs!" 

9. By the advice of Cranmer, the great universities of 
Europe were consulted with regard to the lawfulness of 

during the battle. Hence, the populace entertained the opinion that James was 
still alive, having secretly gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and that he 
would return and take possession of the throne. To this fond conceit they clung 
for many years. 



466 Modern History. 

Henry's mamage; and these having generally decided against 
it, Cranmer, who had recently been made Archbishop of 
Canterbury, opened a court to examine the question; but the 
queen refusing to appear before it, he declared 
the marriage invalid, and ratified that with 
Anne Boleyn, who was then formally crowned 



Divorce of 
Catharine. 



queen (1533). The Pope having pronounced the judgment 
of Cranmer illegal, and threatened Henry with excommuni- 
cation, the Parliament, under the king's influence, confirmed 
his marriage with Queen Anne, and formally declared him 
'^the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England." 
By this declaration and other acts of Parliament, the English 
Church was separated entirely from the Catholic 
Church (1534). The ^monasteries were after- 
ward suppressed, and sonue modifications intro- 



English 
Reformation. 



duced in the doctrines and forms of religion. This event is 

known in history as the English Reformation. 

10. Sir Thomas More, one of the most virtuous and 

learned men of the kingdom, who had succeeded Wolsey as 
chancellor, was beheaded for refusing to acknowl- 
edge "the king's supremacy ; and the upright 
Bishop Fisher was condemned and executed for 



More and 
Fisher. 



the same offense (1535).* The king indeed evinced, during 
the whole of his subsequent reign, a spirit of the most cruel 
bigotry and persecution. In abandoning his 
allegiance to thePope, he by no means became a 



Henry's bigotry. 



convert to all the new doctrines of Luther and others against 

* " CromweU's ingenuity framed an act of succession which not only sanctioned 
the re-marriage, but called on all who took the oath of allegiance to declare their 
belief in the religious validity of the divorce." It was this oath that More refused 
to take. "A mock trial was hardly necessary for his condemnation, or for that of 
Fisher, the most learned among the prelates who had been imprisoned on the same 
charge in the Tower. The old bishop approached the block with a book of the New 
Testament in his hand. He opened it at a venture ere he knelt, and read: ' This is 
life eternal to know Thee, the only true God.' Fisher's death was soon followed by 
that of More. On the eve of the fatal blow, he moved his beard carefully from the 
block, ' Pity that should be cut,' he was heard to mutter, with a touch of the old, 
sad irony; 'that has never committed treason.' '"—Greene. 



England, 467 



the Catholic faith; and while he deprived the churches and 
monasteries of their possessions, he caused those who dis- 
sented from their teachings to be punished without mercy, 
many being burned at the stake. 

11. Less than three years had elapsed after his marriage 
with Anne Boleyn, when he caused her to be beheaded on a 
charge of adultery; but he himself seemed to 
prove her innocence and the wickedness of his 
own conduct, by immediately marrying Jane 



Wives of the 
king. 



Seymour, to whom he had previously become attached. This 
queen having died a short time afterward, for political rea- 
sons he contracted a marriage with Anne of Cleves; but, on 
seeing her, he was greatly disappointed with her personal 
appearance, and he soon afterward divorced her. Cromwell, 
who had arranged the marriage, was executed on a charge of 
treason. His next choice was Catharine Howard, who, like 
Queen Anne, was condemned and beheaded on a charge of 
adultery, but was generally believed guilty. Catharine P<n-r, 
his sixth wife, had the sagacity and good fortune to escape 
his jealous cruelty, and survived him. 

12. The last victim of Henry's tyranny was the accom- 
plished Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who was beheaded on 
Tower Hill, being unjustly condemned for trea- 
son (1547). The king survived this event only a 



Earl of Surrey. 



few days. Henry VIII. was, without doubt, one of the most 
remorseless despots that ever reigned; and there were but few 
of his subjects who did not rejoice at his death. 
Daring this reign, the first complete copy of the 



Character. 



English Bible was printed, and ordered by the king to be 
placed in every parish church. It was based upon the trans- 
lation of William Tyndale, and executed by Miles 
Coverdale. Henry left three children, — Mary, 



daughter of Catharine; Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn; 
and Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last succeeded 
him. 



46B Modern History. 



13. Edward VI. was in his tenth year on his accession; and 
the government was administered with great firmness by his 
maternal uncle, the Duke of Somerset, under the 
title of Lord Protector. During the first years 
of this reign, further changes were made in the 



Principal 
events. 



established religion, and severe laws enacted against those who 
refused to comply with the liturgy, as contained in the Booh 
of Common Prayer, compiled chiefly by Cranmer and Eidley. 
Some who refused obedience were committed to the flames. 
The Duke of Somerset was deprived of his ofiace of Protector 
(1549), and finally executed, through the contrivance of the 
designing and ambitious Duke of Northumberland, who thus 
obtained an undisputed control over the king (1552). This 
nobleman induced Edward to set aside his sisters Mary and 
Elizabeth, and bequeath the crown to Jane Grrey, great-grand- 
daughter of Henry VII., who was married to Lord Guilford 
Dudley, a son of Northumberland. Soon after this, Edward 
died, much lamented for his many virtues (1553).* 

14. Mary, in spite of all the efforts of Northumberland, 
was acknowledged queen; and the unfortunate pair, Dudley 
and Lady Jane Grey, suffered death upon the scaf- 
fold (1554), the queen showing no mercy notwith- 
standing their youth and innocence. The Lady 



Lady Jane 
Grey. 



Jane was one of the most accomplished princesses of her time, 
having been instructed in Latin and Greek by the celebrated 
Roger As'cham. She was also possessed of singular amiability, 
virtue, and piety. Her last message to her youthful husband 
(for neither of them was over seventeen years of age) was: 
"Our separation will be only for a moment; we shall soon 

* "Edward VI., only son of Henry VIII. by his third wife, Jane Seymour, was 
nine years old when he ascended the throne by the death of the king his father. 
His majority was fixed at the eighteenth year of his age by the late king's will, but 
he died before he came to it, after a short reign of six years, five months, and eight 
days. There was reason to hope extraordinary things from this young prince, had 
it pleased God to bless him with a longer life. He had an excellent memory, a 
wonderful solidity of mind, and withal he was laborious, sparing no pains to qualify 
himself for the well -governing of his kingdom."— iJapin's History of England. 



England. 401) 



meet each other in a place where our affections will be forever 
united, and where misfortunes will never . more disturb our 
eternal felicity." 

15. The cherisiied object of Mary was to restore the Catho- 
lic religion; and, in pursuance of it, she consented to marry 
Philip of Spain, son of the Emperor Charles V. 
Through an obsequious Parliament, sne then 
caused all the statutes of Edward VI. with regard 



Measures of 
the queen. 



to religion to be repealed, and the severe laws against heresy 
to be revived. Cardinal Pole was sent at her request to Eng- 
land as papal legate, and the kingdom formally restored to the 
Koman Church. One of the most dreadful persecutions on 
record then ensued; and no less than 277 persons were burnt 
at Smithfield, the most eminent among these martyrs being 
Cranmer, Ridley, and Lat'imer.* 

16. To please her husband, Philip, now become king of 
Spain, the queen engaged in a war with France; but ill suc- 



cess attended her efforts; and Calais, which the 

' Other events. 



^ 



English had held for more than two centuries, 
fell into the hands of the French. The queen was greatly 
mortified at this event; and her death occurred a short time 
after it (1558), much to the relief of the nation, who had been 
disgusted with her cruelty and bigotry. During this reign, 
commercial intercourse was established with Eussia, a passage 
to Archangel having been discovered during the previous 
reign. 

17. Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, who succeeded 
Mary, had been educated in the Protestant faith, and her ac- 
cession to the throne was hailed by the people with great 



* "Cranmer was conducted to the stake, declaring that he had never changed 
his behef ; and that his recantations had been wrung from him by the hope of life; 
and that, as his hand had offended by writing contrary to his heart, it should be 
the first to receive its punishment. When the fire was kindled, to the surprise of 
the spectators, he thrust his hand into the flame, exclaiming, ' This hath offended ! ' 
His sufferings were short ; the flames rapidly ascended above his head, and he ex- 
pired in a few moments."— Z/insraj-d's History of England. 



4^0 Modern History. 

rejoicings. The first important event of her reign was the 
re-enactment of the laws of King Edward, con- 
cerning rehgion, and the re-establishment of the 
new liturgy, to which all were required to conform 



First events 
of the reign. 



under severe penalties. By the Act of Supremacy all clergy- 
men and government ofl&cers were compelled to take an oath 
acknowledging the English sovereign head of the Church; 
and by the Act of Conformity, no persons were allowed to at- 
tend any other places of worship than those of the established 
Church. Hundreds suffered death, imprisonment, or other 
persecution for refusing compliance with these arbitrary 
statutes. 

18. The reign of Elizabeth for the first eleven years was 
distinguished for the internal quiet and prosperity of the 
country. She displayed that prudence, vigilance, 
and activity so necessary in a sovereign, and 
gained the almost universal esteem and admira- 



Conduct of 
the queen. 



tion of her people. Though she was urged by Parlianient to 
enter into the married state, and many distinguished princes, 
both Catholic and Protestant, sought her hand, she positively 
declined all such offers, and expressed her determination to 
remain single for life. She owed much of her success in 
administering the government to the great statesmen whom 
she selected as her ministers, among whom the most promi- 
nent were Cecil (ses'il), afterward Lord Burleigh, and Sir 
Francis Walsingham. 

19. There were at this time in the kingdom three religious 
parties — namely, the Churchmen, or those who were attached 
to the established Church; the Roman Catholics, 
who, supported by the great Continental powers, 
expected to re-establish their religion; and the 



Religious 
parties. 



Puritans, who contended for more radical changes in re- 
ligious forms and doctrines (1569). These last had imbibed 
their principles from those who, during the persecutions of 
the previous reign, ha-d taken refuge in Geneva and Frank- 



Bngland. 471 

fort; and they opposed Elizabeth's government, not only on 
the ground of religious differences, but on ac- 
count of her assuming a prerogative and au- 



Puritans. 



thority opposed to the civil and political rights of the people. 
It was not, however, until a subsequent reign that these fear- 
less agitators were enabled to bring their principles into 
thorough operation. 

20. England at this time began to distinguish herself in 
that splendid career of maritime enterprise which has shed 
so much luster upon her name. Under the 
auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh (raiv'le), a favor- 
ite courtier of Elizabeth, voyages were made to 



Maritime 
affairs. 



North America; and the queen gave to the regions discovered 
the name of Virginia, in honor to herself as a virgin queen 
(1584). Frobisher also made voyages to search for a north- 
west passage to the Pacific; and Sir Francis Drake completed 
a voyage round the world, by way of Cape Horn and the Cape 
of Good Hope (1579). 

21. The people of the Netherlands having revolted against 
Philip II. of Spain, in consequence of his dreadful oppres- 
sions and persecutions (1572), Elizabeth warmly 
espoused their cause; and Philip, therefore, made 



War with Spain. 



extensive preparations to invade England and conquer it, so 
that he might restore it to the authority of the Pope. For 
this purpose he equipped an immense fleet, called the Invin- 
cible Ar-7na'da, consisting of 150 ships, bearing 3000 guns 
and 27,000 men. But this vast armament, as it sailed up the 
Channel, was attacked and partly destroyed by a much smaller 
fleet, under the command of Lord Howard, as admiral, as- 
sisted by those renowned captains, Drake, Frobisher, and 
Hawkins. The Spanish admiral, therefore, finding it impos- 
sible to effect a landing on the coast, or gain any advantages 
over the English fleet, attempted to return to Spain by sail- 
ing around Scotland; but a storm arising, nearly all his ves- 
sels were wrecked off the Orkney Islands (1588). 



472 



Modern History. 



22. The year preceding this glorious event is memorable 
for the execution of the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, 
at Foth'er-in-gay Castle,* after an imprisonment 
of more than eighteen years. Mary was the 



Mary Stuart, 



great-granddaughter of Henry VII., and had first married 
Francis II., king of France, in which country she had been 
educated in the Catholic faith. The early death of her husband 
caused her to return to Scotland, where she assumed the 

throne, although she was much 
disliked by the Scots on account 
of her religion and her gay man- 
ners (1561). A few years after- 
ward (1565), she married her 
cousin. Lord Darn'ley, with 
whom she lived very unhappily, 
on account of his misconduct, 
extravagance, and vicious ex- 
cesses. Darnley, becoming jeal- 
ous of her Italian secretary, 
Rizzio (refse-o), rushed one 
evening into her apartment, where she was engaged with the 
secretary and others ; and the unfortunate man was dragged 
into the antechamber, where he was stabbed to death (1566). 
23. Mary subsequently professed to have pardoned this 
atrocious outrage; but a few months afterward, Darnley's 
house was blown up by gunpowder, and he him- 
self thus killed. The suspicion that Mary was 
accessory to this crime, was confirmed by her 




Mary Stuart. 



Flight to 
England. 



marriage, three months later, with the Earl of Bothwell, a dis- 
solute nobleman, who was generally believed to have been 
concerned in its perpetration. This caused an insurrec- 
tion of the nobles, who, having taken her prisoner, com- 
pelled her to abdicate the throne, and confined her in Loch 

* Fotheringay, a parish in Northampton Co., in the central part of EngrJand. The 
castle was razed to the ground after the accession of James I. (See Map No. XVI.) 



Brigland. 473 



Lev'en Castle.* She, however, escaped thence, and raised a 
small army, which was defeated by Murray the Regent; where- 
upon she fled into England and tlirew herself on tlie protec- 
tion of Elizabeth; but instead of the generous hospitality 
which she had anticipated, she found herself a captive for life. 
24. Mary had given great offense to Elizabeth, when in 
France, by assuming the title of Queen of England, on the 
ground that the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn 
was unlawful; and hence that Anne's daughter, being illegiti- 
mate, had no right to the throne; and during Mary's whole 
life, the Catholic party in England favored her pretensions, 
many conspiracies being formed by them to place her 
upon the throne. In the last of these, the object of which 
was to take the life of Elizabeth, Mary was found 
guilty of being an accomplice, and sentenced to 
death; and the warrant for her execution having 



Execution of 
Mary. 



Character. 



been signed, she was beheaded (1587). f Queen Mary was one 
of the most beautiful and accomplished princesses of her age. 
Her manners were graceful and winning, and her conversation 
full of wit and sprightly intelligence. She was a 
charming singer, and could accompany herself on 
several instruments; and the poems which she has left attest 
a genius for that kind of composition. 

* Loch L^ven, a small lake in the eastern part of Scotland, about twenty miles 
north of Edinburgh. It contains several islands, on one of which the remains of 
the castle still exist. This lake is not to be confounded with Loch Leven in the west- 
ern part of Scotland, near which is the famous valley of Glencoe. 

t The execution of Mary Queen of Scots presents one of the most pathetic 
scenes in history. " She knelt down with great courage, and, still holding the 
crucifix in her hands, stretched out her neck to the executioner. She then said 
aloud, and with the most ardent feeling of confidence, ' My God, I have hoped in 
you; I commit myself to your hands.' . . . There was a universal feeling of 
compassion at the sight of this lamentable misfortune, this heroic courage, this 
admirable sweetness. The executioner himself was moved, and aimed with an un- 
steady hand ; the axe| instead of falling on the neck, struck the back of the head, 
and wounded her; yet she made no movement, nor uttered a complaint. It was 
only on repeating the blow that the executioner struck off her head, which he held 
up, saying. ' God save Queen Elizabeth! ' ' Thus,' added Dr. Fletcher, ' may all her 
enemies perish.' " — Mignefs History of Mary Queen of Scots. 



474 Modern History. 



25. During the religious wars in France, Elizabeth gave 
all the aid in her power to the cause of the Protestants; and 
when Henry IV. had ascended the throne she 
sent him money, and a force under the Earl of 



Essex. 



Essex, to assist him in subduing his enemies (1589). Essex 
was a young nobleman who by his merit and accomplishments 
had gained very high favor with the queen; but he afterward 
fell into disgrace, in consequence of misconduct during an 
expedition against the revolted Irish (1599). Disappointed 
in obtaining a pardon from the queen, he entered into a plot 
to raise an insurrection against her, and with his accomplices 
was arrested, and being tried for treason, was convicted, and 
finally beheaded (1601). 

26. The fate of this young nobleman, for whom she appears 
to have had a very deep affection, oppressed the queen's mind 
with a settled melancholy, which was greatly increased when, 
as is stated, she learned that a ring which she had previously 
given to him, and which he had sent to her to recall her 
tenderness and incite her to clemency, had been treacherous- 
ly withheld by one of his enemies. She died in 
the forty-fifth year of her reign, at the age of 
seventy (1603), leaving a reputation for prudence, 



Death of 
Elizabeth. 



vigor, and ability unsurpassed by any sovereign that ever 
reigned. This reign closes the Tudor line. 

State of Society in England, 

During the Period of the Tudors (1485-1603). 

27. The Tudors were, in general, arbitrary princes; and 
their will was but slightly checked by the proceedings of 
Parliament. Indeed, many practices were acqui- 
esced in that violated the most sacred rights of 



Government. 



the people. Of this character were the proceedings in the 
Court of Star Chamber, which was established or revived by 
Henry VII., and the Court of High Commission, instituted 



England. 475 



by Elizabeth. The former was resorted to for the punishment 
of political offenses, the other to compel religious conformity. 
Unlimited supremacy was conferred by Parliament; and, dur- 
ing the reign of Elizabeth, to utter seditious words against 
the queen was a capital offense. 

28. The revenue of Queen Elizabeth has been estimated at 
half a million sterling. She caused the customs to be more 
carefully collected; and in 1590 they amounted to 
fifty thousand pounds a year, having been raised 



to that sum from fourteen thousand. The supplies obtained 
from Parliament during her whole reign are said to have only 
amounted to three millions, so that she must have exercised 
very great economy to carry on such vast undertakings with 
so slender a revenue. The merchants of London were always 
willing to grant her the loans of money which she required. 

29. Commerce and navigation made very great progress 
during the sixteenth century. The voyage of Columbus had 
given a vast impulse to maritime adventure, which 
was still further stimulated by the rich traffic to 
which it gave rise. Magellan's discovery of a 



Commerce and 
navigation. 



southwest passage to the East, led to many attempts during 
this period to discover one in the northwest. Martin Fro- 
bisher made three fruitless voyages with this object; and Davis, 
not discouraged by his failure, made another attempt, in 
which he discovered the strait that bears his name. The dis- 
covery of a passage to Archangel, which was made during the 
reign of Queen Mary, brought England into close communi- 
cation with Russia; but active commerce with that country 
did not begin until 1569.* Elizabeth obtained from, the Czar 



* " In the year 1553, the English sent forth three ships for the discovery of a 
northeastern passage to Cathay, or China. Two of these were wrecked; the third, 
commanded by Richard Chancellor, proceeded to 'an unknown part of the world,' 
and reached a place where there was ' no night at all but a continual light and 
brightness of the sun shining clearly upon the huge and mighty sea.' At length 
they came to a bay, and the mouth of the Dwina, and report having announced 
them to the terrified natives as men of ' a strange nation, of singular gentleness 



476 Modern History. 



a patent by which the English were to have the whole trade 
of the empire. Encouraged by this privilege, the English 
ventured farther into that vast region than any Europeans 
had previously done, establishing a commercial route with the 
Caspian and the East by way of the Dwina and Volga rivers. 
This caused great jealousy and opposition on the part of the 
Hanse towns; but Elizabeth promptly repressed their meas- 
ures. Trade also began to be carried on with Turkey. 

30. The naval power of England commenced in the reign 
of Henry VII. ; but ship-building was evidently not active, 
since his successor was obliged to hire vessels from 
Hamburg, Lubeck, Genoa, Venice, and other great 



Naval power. 



commercial towns. Under the vigorous sway of the Virgin 
Queen, a better state of things was introduced; and, in 1582, 
the number of seamen in England was registered at over four- 
teen thousand; and the number of vessels amounted to above 
twelve hundred. The navy, at her death, was considered 
large; but the whole number of guns was less than eight hun- 
dred. The military force of the nation, at the time of the 
threatened attack by the Spanish Armada, was set down at 
about 200,000 men. 

31. Manufacturing industry, at the commencement of 
Elizabeth's reign, had made but little progress, foreign wares 
of all kinds enjoying the preference over those 
made at home. The persecutions in France and 



Manufactures. 



the Netherlands, however, drove a large number of skilled 
artisans into England, who laid the foundation of the manu- 
facturing prosperity afterward attained. The cloth manufac- 
ture was so extensive, that as many as 200,000 pieces were 
said to be exported annually from England. The making of 
pins commenced during Elizabeth's reign. Before that time 

and courtesy,' Chancellor was able to travel into the interior. He fotind that the 
country was called Russia, or Muscovy, and that Ivan Vassilievitch II. ' ruled and 
governed far and wide.' This was 'the discovery of Russia,' of which the fame 
spread through Spain the belief 'of the discovery of New Indies,' and in England 
gave immediate impulse to mercantile adventure."— fian<To/f's Studies in History. 



England. 477 



the ladies used to fasten their dresses with chisps, small skew- 
ers of gold, silver, or brass, or hooks and eyes. 

32. Agriculture was carried on with more skill, although 
vast tracts of land were still devoted to the pasturage of sheep. 
The condition of the peasantry was considerably 
miproved. Their wattled huts gave place by de- 



Agriculture. 



grees to comfortable houses, built of stone or brick; and glass 
windows came into general use. Wheaten bread 
was eaten more generally, although rye and bar- 



Houses, etc. 



ley constituted the principal food of the poorer classes. Pota- 
toes were introduced from South America by Raleigh, who 
also brought tobacco from the West Indies, and set the 
example of using it in England. 

33. The ancient magnificence and hospitality of the 
nobility were still in part retained. The Earl of Leicester 
gave the queen an entertainment at his famous 
castle at Kenilworth, in which the most astonish- 
ing profusion was displayed. Among other par- 



Luxury of 

the nobles. 



ticulars, it is said that as many as three hundred and sixty- 
five hogsheads of beer were consumed. Lord Burleigh is 
said to have kept a hundred servants; and his silver plate, 
it is remarked by a writer of the period, '^amounted to only 
fourteen or fifteen thousand pounds in weight." Great lux- 
ury in apparel was also indulged in, the queen taking the lead; 
who, though she issued a jiroclamation to restrain this species 
of extravagance, at her death left a wardrobe of 3,000 dresses. 
34. The revival of learning, particularly the study of the 
classics, constituted a remarkable feature of this period. 
Erasmus, a native of Holland, was professor of 
Greek in the University of Oxford, and did much 



Learning. 



toward the attainment of this result. Henry VIIL, Mary, 
Elizabeth, and Lady Jane Grey were all distinguished for 
their classical learning. Roger Ascham has already been re- 
ferred to as a distinguished teacher of Latin and Greek, 
Middle English now gave place to the New or Modern Eng- 



478 Modern History. 



lish, which, with slight modifications, continues to be the 
language used. This was the language of Shakspeare and 
Bacon. In the first part of this period, the drama consisted 
of short plays called "Interludes," of which the 
most successful writer was John Hey wood, who 



Noted writers. 



lived at the court of Henry VIII. To this j^eriod belong 
Edmund Spenser, the author of the Faerie Queene ; and Sir 
Philip Sidney,- who wrote a pastoral romance, called Arcadia, 
Sir Thomas More wrote a phUosophical romance called Utopia, 
which is much celebr^ated. Queen Elizabeth also wrote Ycrses, 
and claimed to be a poetess. 



SECTION XL 
The Stuaet Family. 



35. James I, the son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded 
Elizabeth, not only by right of birth, but by the nomination 
of the late queen. He had been proclaimed king 
of Scotland under the title of James VI., after 



James I 



the abdication of Mary (1567), being then an infant; and, 
therefore, on his accession to the English throne, the two 
countries became united under one monarch, although they 
continued for about a century longer to have their own sepa- 
rate legislatures. 

36. In the first part of this reign, a conspiracy was formed 
to subvert the government and place Arabella Stuart, tiie 
king's cousin, on the throne; and in this scheme 
the celebrated Sir Walter Ealeidi was accused of 



Raleigh, 



being concerned, and was kept in imprisonment for several 
years, during which he wrote his " History of the World." 
Being released in order that he might point out a gold-mine 
which he said existed in Guiana {glie-ali'nah), and having 
failed in the expedition, he was, on his return, beheaded, in 



England. 



479 



pursuance of the sentence previously pronounced against him 
(1018).* This act reflects a lasting disgrace upon James, 
who sacrificed this ilhistrious man to appease the anger of 
Spain, incensed by the attack which Kaleigh had made upon 
several of the Spanish settlements in South America. 

37. Some of the Catholic party, disappointed in not re- 
ceiving the religious liberty which they had expected on the 
accession of James, became concerned in a plot 

to overturn the gov- 
ernment by the de- 




Gunpowder 
plot. 



struction of the king and Par- 
liament (1605). For this pur- 
pose a vault below the House of 
Lords was hired, in which thirty- 
six barrels of gunpowder were 
stored. These were to be fired, 
on the opening of Parliament, 
by one Guy Fawkes, an ofiicer 
in the Spanish service, who was 
the agent of this conspiracy, — 
called the Gunpowder Plot. It was fortunately discovered 
just on the eve of its execution, and Guy Fawkes with some 
of tlie other conspirators was executed. 

38. James, although of a pusillanimous disposition, was 
very persistent in upholding the royal prerogative, being 
prone on all occasions to insist on the divine right of kings to 



Raleigh. 



* " Raleigh in vain submitted to the court that the commission given him as 
commander, the power of Hfe and death over others, amomited to a pardon; 
execution was granted, and the scholar, the writer, the warrior, and the statesman 
(for Raleigh was all of these) was led to a scaffold, in the 66th year of his age, in 
order to cement by his blood a marriage with a daughter of Spain. He mounted 
the scaffold with that courage which never deserted him. When he had taken off 
his gown and doublet, he asked the executioner to let him see the axe. He poised 
it, and running his thumb along the edge, said, with a smile, ' This is a sharp 
medicine, but it will cure all diseases.' The executioner was going to blindfold 
him, but he refused to let him, saying, ' Think you I fear the shadow of the axe, 
when I fear not the axe itself?' He gave the signal by stretching out his hands, 
and his head was struck off at two \)\oy;^,"' ^^KeighWef^ IJistory of England, 



480 



Modern History. 



rule without control. His arbitrary acts and principles, how- 
ever, met with decided opposition from the Parlia- 
ment of 1621, who declared their privileges to be 
the ancient and undoubted birthright of the Eng- 



Course of 
Parliament. 



lish people; which declaration so incensed the king, that he 
sent for the Journals of the Commons, and tore the record 
out with his own hands. A settlement was effected m Vir- 
ginia, during the previous part of this reign (1607), at a place 
named, in honor of the king, Jamestow^n. 

39. James had been educated b}^ the celebrated George 
Bu-chan'an, of Scotland, and possessed considerable learn- 
ing, of which he was 
passionately fond of 
makmg a display; so 



Manners of the 
king. 




Musketeer and Pikeman, Time of 
James I. 



that, although he was excessively 
flattered by his courtiers, his 
pedantry gained him very gen- 
eral ridicule. The distinguished 
French minister. Sully, very aptly 
styled him ^'the wisest fool in 
Christendom." He was as de- 
void of dignity of manners and 
conversation as of good sense, his 
unseemly familiarity being equal to his childish vanity and 
offensive arrogance. 

40. One of the worst characteristics of this monarch was 
his proneness to attach himself to unworthy favorites, the 
first of whom was Robert Carr, a young Scotch- 
man, on whom James for several years lavished 
the most profuse favors, bestowing on him the 
title of Earl of Somerset. Carr was succeeded in the king's 
favor by George Villiers {viVyerz), who was created Duke 
of Buckingham, and gained an infamous notoriety by his 
profligacy and arrogant conduct. James being anxious to 
bring about a marriage between his son Charles and the 



Carr and 
Buckingham. 



England. 481 



Infanta of Spain, Buckingham conceived the romantic pro- 
ject of a journey to Spain by the young prince and himself in 
disguise. On their way they yisited the French court, where 
Charles first saw the French princess Henrietta Maria, whom 
he subsequently married. 

41. A treaty was soon afterward made with France, one 
of the terms of which confirmed this proposed marriage; but, 
before it was carried into effect, the king was 
suddenly seized with illness, and expired, in the 



King's death. 



fifty-ninth year of his age, after a reign of twenty-two years 
(1625). One of the most important events of this j^eriod ^as 
a new translation of the Bible. It was executed 
under the patronage of the king, and by a num- 
ber of learned men designated by him. It was 



Translation of 
tlie Bible. 



published in 1611; and having superseded other versions, con- 
tinues to be the English Bible in general use among English- 
speaking Protestants. 

42. The Puritans — so called from their strict principles 
and austerity of life — greatly increased in numbers and influ- 
ence during this reign. Their public preachings 
were directed against the dissoluteness, levity. 



Puritans. 



I 



and luxury of the times, and particularly inculcated a more 
serious observance of the Sabbath, which had previously been 
a day of pleasure and pastime. Some of them, disgusted with 
the king's high-handed measures, especially against those who 
refused to conform to the established church, emigrated to 
Holkind, and afterward to New England, where they made a 
settlement at Plymouth (1020). This emigration was con- 
tinued during the next reign. 

43. Charles I., on his accession, was in his twenty-fifth 
year; and soon afterward married Henrietta Maria, daugh- 
ter of the French king Henry IV. In order to 
prosecute a war with Spain, which had been 
brought on by the arrogance and misconduct of 
the Duke of Buckingham, he summoned a parliament, and 



Measures of 
Parliament. 



482 Modern History. 



King's 
measures. 



asked for a vote of supplies. This the Commons, under the 
leadership of Sir Thomas Went worth, Sir John Eliot, and others, 
refused to grant, unless Charles would relinquish some of the 
prerogatives which had been exercised by his father, and which 
he still claimed as his hereditary right. Charles, therefore, dis- 
solved the parliament, and levied money by his own authority. 

44. These forced loans, called tonnage and pouiidage,^ and 
ship-moneij ,\ gave great offense to the people, whose discon- 
tent was still further increased by the conduct 
of Buckingham, — particularly by the failure, 
through his mismanagement, of an expedition de- 
signed to assist the Huguenots, or French Protestants, in 
t'heir contest with Richelieu (reesh'e-lu). In a succeeding 
parliament, accordingly, the king met with more determined 
opposition; and the famous Petition of Right\ was adopted, 
to which the king was obliged to give his assent (1628). 
Soon after this the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated at 
Portsmouth, by an officer of the army whom he had offended. 

45. This parliament having been again assembled in 1629, 
and proving refractory, the king determined to rule without 

a parliament, and continued his illegal exactions. 
He also, by means principally of the Court of 
Star Chamber, % attempted to punish such of the 



King and 
Parliannent. 



popular leaders as had made themselves particularly obnoxious. 

* Tonnage and poundage were duties on imported merchandise which it had 
been customary to allow the king to levy since the reign of Edward JII. The 
Parliament of 1625 refused, however, to grant this privilege to the king for a longer 
period than one year. 

t Ship-money was an arbitrary tax levied on the seaports for the equipment of 
a fleet. Charles extended it over the whole kingdom. 

X The Petiti'^-i of Right was an emphatic statement of the privileges of the people 
as conferred by previous enactments. It is regarded as the Second Great Charter 
of English liberties. 

§ The Court of Star Chamber was of very ancient origin, and derived its name 
from the chamber of the king's palace at Westminster in which it used to hold its 
sessions, the ceiling of this apartment being decorated with stars. It had very ex- 
tensive powers, both civil and criminal, and could adjudge cases without the inter- 
vention of a jury. Hence it became a formidable instrument of tyranny, It was 
aboijslied by cvct of Parliament In 1641. 



England. 483 



Some of them were fined for what was called their seditious 
language in Parliament; but they refused to pay the fines, and 
Sir John Eliot died in prison. Charles, however, chose some 
of his ministers from among the popular leaders; one of 
whom. Sir Thomas Wentworth, was created Earl of Strafford, 
and became the chief minister of the king. 

46. Another cause of complaint was afforded by the policy 
of the king with regard to religion. Under the influence of 
Archbishop Laud, the liturgy was altered and the 
ritual increased by many of the ceremonial obser 



Laud. 



vances of the Catholic Church, very much to the disgust of 
the great body of the English people, but particularly of the 
Puritans. Many of the latter, to avoid con- 
forming to the requirements of the established 



Puritans. 



church, emigrated to New England, and founded Massachu- 
setts and other colonies in that country. Charles also at- 
tempted to force this liturgy upon the Scottish people; but 
they rose in insurrection against it; and the fa- 
mous Covenant was formed and signed, according 



Covenant. 



to which they solemnly bound themselves to unite for their 
mutual defense, and to resist all religious innovations (1638). 
The king requiring them to relinquish the covenant, a war 
ensued; and a Scottish army invaded England, which, after 
defeating a detachment of the royal forces at the Tyne River, 
took possession of Newcastle. 

47. This compelled the king finally to call another parlia- 
ment, in order to obtain supplies. This body, memorable as 
the Long Parliament, assembled in 1640, and im- 
mediately commenced the redress of public griev- 
ances. One of its first acts was the impeachment 



Long 
Parliannent. 



of the Earl of Strafford, who had become odious to the popu- 
lar leaders because of his desertion of their cause, 
and the aid he had given the king in carry- 
ing out his most arbitrary measures. Being tried 



Strafford 
and Laud. 



and found guilty of treason, he was beheaded, the king 



484 Modern History. 



Iliaving ungratefully given his assent to the execution (1641). 
Archbishop Laud was also impeached and imprisoned in the 
Tower, but his execution did not take place until four years 
afterward. In the same year, a dreadful insur- 
rection broke out in Ireland against the govern- 



Ireland. 



ment, and the English were massacred with every species of 

cruelty (1641). 

48. Meanwhile, the Parliament continued its measures of 

redress; and the king took a step which still further inflamed 
the popular indignation against him. Going 
with an armed retinue to the House, he de- 
manded that five of its members should be 



King and 
Parliannent. 



pointed out to him in order that they might be seized. But 
the Speaker, Lenthall, refused to comply, boldly declaring 
that he was the servant of the House, and could only act in 
accordance w^tli its directions. The king therefore retired 
without effecting his object, amid the low murmurs of ^' Pri- 
vilege! privilege!" from the indignant members (1642). 
Among the five members thus assailed was the noted patriot 
John Hampden, who, a few years before, had gained the ap- 
plause of the people by making a bold stand against the ille- 
gal levy of ship-money. 

49. The king, whose conduct was characterized by great 
irresolution as well as rashness and imprudence, afterward 
apologized for this breach of the privileges of 
Parliament; but the latter was now determined 
on extreme measures, and demanded the royal 



Civil war 
conamenced. 



assent to propositions which would have stripped him of all 
authority. Finding a large party in his favor, he collected 
what forces he could, and erected the royal standard, resolved 
to stake the issue upon the sword. The Parliament had also 
made preparations for the struggle; and thus was commenced 
that great civil war which raged for years between those who 
supported the authority of the king and those who wished to 
limit, or destroy it (1642), 



England. 485 



50. The Cavaliers, as the royalists were then called, in- 
cluded the greater part of the nobility, clergy, and landed 
gentry, with those wlio were attached to the estab- 
lished church, and all the Catholics. The sup- 



porters of Parliament were chiefly composed of the yeomanry 
of the country, the townspeojile, and the dissenters, who 
were chiefly Puritans. These last were called 
Roundheads, in derision of their custom of wear- 



Roundheads. 



ing their hair cropped short.* The parliamentary forces were 
at first led by the Earl of Essex; those of the king, by the 
Earl of Lindsay. The cavalry of the latter was commanded 
by the famous Prince Rupert, f 

51. The first general engagement took place at Edgehill, 
and Lindsay was mortally wounded and taken prisoner; but 
there was no decisive victory on either side 
(1642). In a skirmish the next year, the illus- 



Hampden. 



trious John Hampden was mortally wounded;]; and his loss 

* "The Cavaliers, who affected a liberal way of thinking, as well as a gayety and 
freedom of manners inconsistent with puritanical ideas^ were represented by the 
Roundheads t.s a set of abandoned profligates, equally destitute of religion and 
morals; the devoted tools of the court, and the zealous abettors of arbitrary power. 
The Cavaliers, on the other hand, regarded the Roundheads as a gloomy, narrow- 
minded, fanatical herd, determined enemies to kingly power, and to all distinction 
of ranks in society. But in these characters, drawn by the passions of the two 
parties, we must not expect impartiality; both are certainly overcharged."— 
RusseWs Modern Europe. 

t Prince Rupert was the son of Frederick, Elector-Palatine, and Elizabeth, 
daughter of James I. , so that the reigning king. Charles I., was his uncle. He was 
not only promment in this war, but afterward acquired great distinction in the 
naval operations of England. Subsequently he became noted for his researches in 
science and the useful arts. 

X " The news of Hampden's death produced as great a consternation in his 
party, according to Clarendon, as if their whole army had been cut off. The jour- 
nals of the time amply prove that the Parliament and all its friends were filled with 
grief and dismay. Lord Nugent has quoted a remarkable passage from the next 
Weekly Intelligencer. ' The loss of Colonel Hampden goeth near the heart of every 
man that loves the good of his king and country; and makes some conceive little 
content to be at the army now that he has gone. The memory of this deceased 
colonel is such that in no age to come but it will more and more be had m honor 
and esteem;— a man so religious, and of that prudence, judgment, temper, valor, 
and integrity, that he hath left few his like behind hiva..' ''''—Macaulays Miscel- 
laneous Essays. 



486 Modern History. 



was felt as a severe blow to the popular party. Several 
battles were fought during the same year (1643), the most 
important of which was that of Newbury. The result was 
still indecisive; but the royalists lost one of their chief sup- 
porters in the brave and eloquent Lord Falkland 
{fawh'land), who, while he had at first firmly 



and patriotically opposed the unjust pretensions of the king, 
stood by him when the attempt was made by Parliament to 
deprive him of his legal authority. 

52. The Parliament entered into negotiations with Scot- 
land to combine their forces against the king; and, princi- 
pally through the address of Sir Henry Vane, 
who had been sent as a commissioner to Edin- 



Sir Henry Vane. 



burgh, a '' solemn league and covenant" was entered into by 
which the Scottish people renewed the pledges of the previous 
covenant, and bound themselves to assist the cause of the 
English Parliament. A large army was, accordingly, sent 
into England; but this was counterbalanced by a considerable 
force which the king succeeded in obtaining from Ireland 
(1643). Lord Fairfax, who commanded the par- 
liamentary forces in the north, formed a junction 



Fairfax. 



With the Scotch, and laid siege to York. 

53. Prince Rupert, arriving with a considerable army, 

raised the siege, and brought on the battle of Marston Moor, 
in which the royalists sustained a severe defeat, 
principally through the activity and skill of 
Oliver Cromwell, by whom Prince Rupert's cav- 



Oliver 
Cromwell. 



airy was routed and his artillery captured (1644). A short 
time afterward, the command of the parliamentary army was 
transferred to Sir Thomas Fairfax, a man entirely under 
the infliience of Cromwell; and, the next year 
(1645), a very decisive victory was gained by 
Fairfax and Cromwell over the kinsf's forces at 



Battle of 
Naseby. 



Naseby {naze'be), in which the latter especially distinguished 
himself by his skill and valor. 



Englana, 487 



54. After other reverses, the king, despairing of success, 
gave himself up to the Scottish army (1646), expecting to be 
treated with respect and liberality; but the Scots 
delivered him up to the English Parliament, by 
whom he was kept a prisoner (1047). Soon 



Surrender of 
the king. 



afterward, the Puritan dissenters known as Separatists or In- 
depeyidents, triumphed over the Presbyterians; and Cromwell, 
who belonged to the former, obtained, through his influence 
with the army, control of the Parliament. Find- 
ing the Presbyterian members hostile to his views, 
he caused the House to be surrounded by two regi- 



Cromwell's 
nneasures. 



ments under Colonel Pride, one of his trusty officers, and 
excluded all but the most determined of the Independents. 
This invasion of the Parliament was called, in derision, 
*' Colonel Pride's Purge" (1648). 

65. Meanwhile, the king had offered important conces- 
sions, which the Presbyterians were disposed to accept; but 
the Independents, who now controlled Parlia- 
ment, voted them to be unsatisfactory, for Crom- 



Independents. 



well and the other generals under his influence were resolved 
on the entire subversion of royalty and the establishment of a 
republic. Accordingly, a resolution was adojited that the 
king had been guilty of treason in levying war against his 
Parliament; and a court was organized to try him. This 
court, presided over by John Bradshaw, a lawyer, 
consisted of 133 members, among whom were the 
chief officers of the army; and, although the king 



Execution of 
the king. 



refused to acknowledge its authority, he was found guilty, and 
three days afterward was beheaded (January 30, 1649).* 

* " Whatever had been the faults and follies of Charles's life, ' he nothing com- 
mon did, or mean, upon that memorable scene.' Two masked executioners awaited 
the king as he mounted the scaffold, which had been erected outside one of the 
windows of the Banqueting House at Whitehall; the streets and roofs were 
thronged with spectators; and a strong body of soldiers stood drawn up beneath. 
His head fell at the first blow ; and, as the executioner lifted it to the sight of all, a 
groan of pity and horror burst from the silent crowd."— G^ree?i's History of the 
English People. 



488 Modern History. 



66. The Scots had protested against this whole proceed- 
ing, and foreign nations interceded in the king's behalf. 
The Prince of Wales, anxions to save his faLher's life, sent a 
blank sheet of paper, subscribed with his name and sealed 
with his arms, on which the judges might write what con- 
ditions they pleased as the price of the king's release; but 
these men could not be moved from their pur- 
pose. A few days after the death of Charles, the 
Commons abolished the House of Lords, and for- 



Commonwealth 
proclaimed. 



mally proclaimed the establishment of the Conwioniuealtli, 

declaring it high treason to acknowledge Charles, the Prince 

of Wales, king of England. 

57. The character of Charles I. was in many respects 

worthy of commendation. In his private relations his con- 
duct was quite exemplary, being entirely free 
from those vices which so often sully the charac- 
ter of kings. As a monarch, his principal fault 



Character of 
Charles I. 



was insincerity, by which he lost the confidence of his people; 
for he gave his assent to measures of reform which he subse- 
quently endeavored to evade. His arbitrary conduct finds 
some apology in the fact that his predecessors had exercised 
most of the powers which he claimed; but his prudence and 
moderation were not sufficient to convince him that the 
change which had taken place in the sentiments of the people 
necessitated a corresponding change in the royal claims; and 
a sad experience was needed to show him that no authority, 
however great, can prevail over the influence of public opinion. 
58. The Commonwealth. Cromwell, as Lord Lieutenant, 
having entirely subdued the insurrection which had broken 
out in Ireland, was next sent by the Parliament 
to Scotland, where the Covenanters had pro- 
claimed Charles II. king, and had raised a large 



Ireland and 
Scotland. 



army for his support. They were entirely defeated by Crom- 
w^ell in the battle of Dunbar (1650); after which Charles 
determined to march into England, expecting to obtain large 



England. 489 



accessions to his army. But in this he was disappointed; 
and being promptly pursued by Cromwell, was defeated at 
Worcester (woos'ter), where the whole Scottish army were 
either killed or taken prisoners (1651). Charles 
escaped from England with great difficulty, being 



Prince Charles. 



obliged to travel for two months in the disguise of a peasant. 
At one time, he concealed himself for twenty-four hours in a 
large oak-tree, while his pursuers passed on. This tree was 
afterward known as the Eoyal Oak. 

69. The affairs of the English republic, under the admin- 
istration of the Parliament, continued to be 
prosperous. The Portuguese were humbled by 



Englishsuccess. 



Admiral Blake; Ireland was reduced to submission by Ir^'ton, 
one of Cromwell's generals; and Scotland was entirely subju- 
gated by General Monk, whom Cromwell had left to complete 
the work commenced by the battle of Dunbar. Being offended 
by the haughty behavior of the Dutch republic, the Parlia- 
ment passed the famous Navigation Act, which prohibited all 
nations from importing any merchandise into England or her 
colonies except in English ships, or in the ships of the country 
where the goods were produced. The Dutch being at this 
time the principal commercial nation of Europe, 
a war was brought on, in which Blake gained 



Dutch war. 



several splendid victories over the Dutch fleets, commanded 
by the great admirals Van Tromp and De Ruy'ter (1651-3). 
60. Meanwhile, Cromwell perceiving that the Parliament 
had become jealous of his power, determined to dissolve it. 
Accordingly, going to the House with 300 soldiers, he loaded 
the members with the vilest reproaches, and bade them *^ to 
be gone and give place to honester men." Seizing the mace, 
he exclaimed, *^ Take away this bauble!" Then 
commanding the soldiers to clear the hall, he 
ordered the doors to be locked; and putting the 



Parliament 
dissolved. 



keys in his pocket, departed to his lodgings (1653). Thus, 
being supported by the army, he obtained the supreme power 



490 



Modern History. 



of the government. Desiring, however, to preserve some of 
the forms of the republic, he issued writs for the election of 
156 persons, who were to constitute a parliament. 
These, by his management, consisted of the mean- 
est and most fanatical of the citizens, one of 



Little 
Parliament. 



whom, a leather-dealer named Praise-God Barebone, having 
made himself prominent by his sanctimonious cant and long 
prayers, the Parliament was called, in derision, ^^Barebone's 
Parliament." It was also known as the ^' Little Parliament." 
61. Cromwell soon dissolved this ridiculous assembly, and 
caused himself to be appointed 

Lord Protector. He 

was to be assisted 

bv a Council of 



Cromwell 
Protector. 



State, and was bound to summon 

a parliament every three years 

(1653). A short time previous- 
ly. Van Tromp, the distinguished 

Dutch admiral, had been killed 

in an action with the English 

under Blake; and the Dutch, 

terrified by their losses and over- 
whelmed with the expense of the war, now so- 
licited peace. This was -at last granted by Crom- 
well, and a defensive lea2:ue was established 




Milton. 



Peace with the 
Dutch. 



between the two republics, the honor of the flag being yield- 
ed to the English (1654). The administration of Cromwell 
was characterized by great vigor and ability. He 
boasted that he would make the name of English- 
man as much feared and respected as had been that 



Cromwell's 
government. 



of Roman; and the uniform success of his naval and military 
enterprises went far to realize this saying. John Milton,* 



* " In the character of Milton the noblest qualities of every party were combined 
in harmonious union. From the Parliament and from the court, from the conven- 
ticle and from the Gothic cloister, from the gloomy and sepulchral circles of the 



England. 491 



the poet, acted as Foreign Secretary under Cromwell, and 
wrote in defense of the Commonwealth. 

62. Under Blake, the English fleets achieved an uninter- 
rupted series of victories. He subdued the Barbary Powers 
(1655), and defeated the Spani:ards in several im- 
portant actions (1656-7). His death occurred in 



Blake. 



1657. Blake was an inflexible republican; but he disapproved 
of the usurpations of Cromwell, notwithstanding the honors 
which the latter heaped upon him. During the war waged 
with Spain, the island of Jamaica was captured by 
an English squadron under Admirals Penn and 



Jamaica. 



Venables (1655); and Dunkirk was captured from the Span- 
iards by the combined forces of France and England (1658). 

63. Cromwell, although prosperous abroad, was at home 
involved in very great difficulties. He had called two parlia- 
ments successively; but not finding them subservient to his 
views, he had promptly dissolved them (1654-1656). He was 
threatened with conspiracies against his government; and, 
after reading a book published by one Colonel Titus, and en- 
titled ^^ Killing no Murder," he became afraid of 
assassination, and constantly wore armor under 
his clothes, and carried pistols in his pockets. 



Death of 
Cromwell. 



At last the dreadful anxiety of his mind brought on a fever, 
of which he expired in his sixtieth year (September 3, 1658), 
— the anniversary of the day on which he had gained the vic- 
tories of Dunbar and Worcester. He was of a robust frame 
of body, and of a manly, though not an agree- 
able aspect. His character had very many traits 



of greatness; but his perverted ambition made him cruel and 

Roundheads and from the Christmas revel of the hospitable Cavalier, his nature 
selected and drew to itself whatever was great and good, while it rejected all the 
base and pernicious ingredients by which those fine elements were defiled. Like 
the Puritans, he lived ' as ever in his great Taskmaster's eye.' Like them, he kept 
his mind continually fixed on an Almighty Judge and an eternal reward ; and hence 
he acquired their contempt of external circumstances, their fortitude, their tran- 
quillity, their inflexible resolution."— J/acauiai/, 



492 Modern History, 



unprincipled. No one can gainsay the splendid talents which 
he displayed, both as a general and a statesman; and, had he 
rightfully possessed the sovereign power, he would undoubt- 
edly have compared favorably with any monarch that ever 
reigned. 

64. Richard Cromwell succeeded his father in the office of 
Protector; but his want of capacity for so difficult a position 
was soon manifest, notwithstanding he was supported by Gen- 
eral Monk, who commanded the army in Scotland, and by his 
brothor Henry, as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. A parliament 
was called, but it having given offense to the army 
officers, the latter compelled Richard to dissolve 
it (1659). Soon after this he signed his own 



Restoration 
effected. 



abdication, and thus left tlie supreme authority to the army, 
who then ruled by a council of officers. The country being 
threatened with anarchy and civil war. General Monk marched 
his army into England, and subdued the contending factions. 
A parliament was then called, and Charles 11. was proclaimed 
king (May 29, 1660). This event is known in English history 
as the Restoration. 

65. Charles II. came to the throne with the universal re* 
joicings of the people. At the commencement of his reign, 
an act was passed pardoning all who had taken 
part in the Great Rebellion, except the regicide 



Amnesty. 



judges, some of whom were tried and executed. On the anni- 
versary of the late king's death, the bodies of Cromwell, Ire- 
ton, and Bradshaw were disinterred, hanged on the gallows, 
then decapitated, and their heads fixed on Westminster Hall. 
With this exception the king showed great moderation and 
clemency, and admitted into his council both 
royalists and Presbyterians. Sir Edward Hyde 



Clarendon. 



was created Earl of Clarendon, and made prime minister. 

66. The most remarkable feature of this period was the 
entire change which took place in the sentiments of the peo- 
ple. During the reign of Charles I. they manifested the most 



England. 493 



intense zeal for liberty; but no\y they seemed eager to evince 
an equally extravagant spirit of submission. 
Under the control of the Puritans, they seemed 
to think that religion consisted in gloom, auster- 



Change ir 
manners. 



ity, and the sacrifice of all social gayety and pleasure; but, 
going to the opposite extreme, they now plunged into riot and 
dissipation. Everything religious or serious was ridiculed; 
and nothing but scenes of gallantry and festivity occupied the 
general attention. The monarch set the example, and in- 
dulged himself in mirth and festivity, while those who had 
suffered in his father's cause were left in wretchedness and 
neglect.* This profusion and reckless self-indulgence on the 
part of the king considerably abated the people's 
loyalty, for they could not forbear a comparison 
between this slothful and licentious monarch and 



Conduct of 
Charles. 



the great Protector who had made the name of England so 
glorious throughout the world. 

67. Dunkirk, which had been acquired during that splen- 
did period, was now sold to the French to supply means for 
the king's extravagant pleasures (1664). The 
same year war was commenced against the Dutch; 



Dunkirk. 



and the English took possession of New Netherlands in North 
America, and captured some of the Dutch settlements in Af- 
rica. De Euyter retaliated by attacking Barba- 
does and some of the other English dependencies. 



Dutch war. 



A great naval battle was fought off the eastern coast of Eng- 
land, in which James, Duke of York, brother of the king, 
defeated the Dutch fleet with immense loss (1665). France 
then took sides with the Dutch republic; but 
the combined fleets of the allies, commanded by 



French war. 



the great Admiral De Ruyter and the Duke of Beaufort, were 



* In the third year of his -'eign, Charles had married Catharine of Braganza, a 
Portuguese princess, with v^liom he received a large dowry; but finding her dis- 
position serious and her manners formal and grave, he entirely neglected her for 
the societj^ of his gay and dissolute companions. 



494 Modern History. 



defeated by the English under the Duke of Al-be-marle' (pre- 
viously General Monk) and Prince Rupert. This battle lasted 
four days, and was one of the most terrific naval engagements 
ever fought (1666). 

68. It was at this time that the Great Plague broke out in 
London; and such was its virulence, that the deaths in the 
City alone were estimated at not less than 100,000 
in one year (1665). Close upon this dreadful 



Great Plague. 



calamity followed the Great Fire, which raged for three days, 
and destroyed upward of 13,000 dwelling-houses and ninety 
churches (1666). The desire of Charles to save expense, in 
order that he might have means for his extravagant indul- 
gences, led to neglect in keeping up the naval force of the 
kingdom; and the Dutch, taking advantage of 
this, defiantly entered the harbors, and did im- 
mense havoc to the shipping. They even sailed 



Attack of the 
Dutch. 



up the Thames, extending their ravages as far as London 

Bridge (1667). Peace was, however, declared the same year. 
69. The disgraceful close of this war, together with the 

previous measures, made the government very unpopular; 

and Clarendon was impeached and banished.^ Five ministers, 
called afterward the Cahal,^ were then chosen, 
who adopted the policy of restraining the French 



The Cabal. 



king Louis XIV. in his ambitious scheme of seizing the 
Spanish Netherlands.! A league was formed with Holland 
and Sweden, called the Triple Alliance; and Louis 
was compelled to abandon his enterprise (1668). 



Triple Allinace. 



Charles afterward became dissatisfied with the alliance and 
concluded a disgraceful treaty with Louis, in which he agreed 
to assist the latter in subjugating Holland, and also consented 

* The initial letters of the names of these ministers— Cliflford, Ashley, Bucking- 
ham, Arlington, and Lauderdale— gave point to this term of reproach, which at 
that period, as at present, was used to signify any secret committee, or junto. 

tThat part of Netherlands which reranine'l in possession of Spain after the 
Dutch provinces had revolted and 3,chieved their independence. It included thQ 
present kingdom of Belgium 



England. 495 



to make a public profession of the Catholic faith. For this 
he was to receive as a compensation an immense sum of money 
yearly from the French coffers (1670). 

70. Shortly afterward (1G72), England joined France in a 
war against the Dutch; and while the fleets of the latter con- 
tended with those of the English commanded by 
the Duke of York, the French army invaded the 



Dutch war 



territory of the republic, captured many of its cities, and 
drove it to the extreme measure of opening the sluices and 
indundating the country. In these perilous circumstances 
the Dutch forces were commanded by William, 
Prince of Orange, who gained great distinction 
by his determined courage and patriotism. The 



William of 
Orange. 



war continued till 1674, when it had become so unpopular 
that the king was compelled to make a treaty of peace with 
the Dutch provinces.* 

71. While this war was in progress, the Test Act was 
passed by Parliament, obliging all government officers to take 
the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to ab- 
jure all the doctrines of the Catholic Church. 



The Duke of York, brother of the king, who had made a 
public profession of his adherence to that church, resigned 
the office of admiral, and was succeeded by Prince Rupert. 
Much excitement was produced by an alleged 
conspiracy (called the ^^ Popish Plot"). It was 



Popish Plot 



rumored that the Catholics had planned to set fire to the city 
of London, assassinate the king, and deliver the country to 
the French. The chief witness in this absurd accusation was 
one Titus Gates, who afterward was proved to be a most in- 
famous character. Before, however, the impos- 
ture was discovered, many innocent persons suf- 



Death of Surrey. 



fered death, among them the aged and illustrious Earl of 
Surrey (1680). 

* The Dutch repubUc was called the "Republic of the Seven United Provinces." 
It included the present liingdom of Holland, 



496 Modern History. 



72. In the year 1679, was passed the famous Ha' be-as 
Cor'pus* act, securing all subjects from imprisonment, ex- 
cept where it can be shown to be justified by law. 
This was designed to check the illegal and arbi- 



Habeas corpus. 



trary arrests made by the authority of the king, who in every 
respect exercised the most despotic sway. He deprived many 
of the cities, London included, of their charters, in order to 
extort money for their restoration; and no one felt himself 
secure from the numerous gangs of spies and in- 
formers who were employed by the court. This 



Rye-House Plot. 



state of things led to a very remarkable conspiracy, called the 

Rye-House Plot (1683). 

73. The members of this plot were. Lord William Russell, 

Algernon Sidney, John Hampden (grandson of the great 
patriot), the Duke of Monmouth (the king's 
natural son), and others. The object was to 
restore the liberties of the country by dethron- 



Members and 

object. 



ing its present arbitrary monarch, but the conspirators did 
not agree as to the mode of accomplishing it. Monmouth 
expected the throne himself, Russell wished simj^ly reform, 
and Sidney was enthusiastic for the restoration of the re- 
public. The plot having been discovered, Russell and Sidney 
were beheaded (1683); but Monmouth, who had 
succeeded in making his escape, was afterward 
pardoned. The death of Charles occurred a short 



Death of 
Charles. 



time afterward (1685); and his brother, the Duke of York, 
succeeded, under the title of James IL 

74. James II., notwithstanding the glory he had acquired 
as a naval commander, was very unpopular on account of his 
religion, to which he showed the greatest attachment. The 
Duke of Monmouth, who had fled to Holland during the pre- 



* Habeas corpus means ''have the body." The writ, or order of the court of 
justice, was so called because it enjoins any person restraining another's liberty, to 
have his body, that is, to produce the prisoner, before the court, so that the cause 
of his detention may be known. 



England. 497 



ceding reign, now set up a claim to the throne, and landing 
in England, was soon joined by a considerable 
force. He was, however, completely defeated at 



Insurrection, 



Sedge'moor,* and being apprehended after the battle, was 
tried and executed (1685). The most dreadful persecution 
followed of those who were implicated in the rebellion. Trials 
were held under the infamous Judge Jeffries; 
and many innocent persons were condemned and 



Jeffries. 



executed. This wicked Judge boasted of the large number of 
persons (more than 300) whom he had caused to be hanged. 

75. The imprudent zeal of the king in promoting the 
Catholics to power, occasioned great excitement and dissatis- 
faction. Having issued a proclamation allowing 
liberty of conscience, and declaring that non-con- 
formity to the established religion should no 



Zeal of the 
king. 



ionger be punished, he required that this declaration sliould 
be read in all the churches. The clergy refused to obey; and a 
petition was presented against the proclamation by seven bish- 
oj)s, including Bancroft, the primate. James, exasperated at 
this opposition, caused the bishops to be arrested 
and imprisoned in the Tower (1688). The popular 
excitement produced by this act of the king was 



Arrest of the 
bishops. 



intense. Crowds attended the bishops as they were con- 
ducted to the Tower, and signified their sympathy and venera- 
tion in every possible way. The acquittal of the bishops after 
their trial at Westminster Hall, still further increased the 
commotion, even the soldiers whom James had collected for 
his protection taking part against him. 

76. A few months afterward, William, Prince of Orange,! 
who had married Mary, eldest daughter of James II., taking 
advantage of the popular indignation against the king, set 

* Sedgemoor, a -wild tract of country in the southwestern part of England, not 
far from Bristol Channel. 

t William was the son of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I., and consequently 
was a nephew of James II. ; and Mary, his wife, was his first cousin. Setting aside 
the family of James II., William was thus the next lawful heir to the throne. 



498 



Modern History, 



sail from Holland with a large fleet and army, and proceeded 
to England. Having effected a landing at Tor- 
bay, he marched toward London; whereupon 
James, finding himself without support, fled to 



Landing of 
William. 



France. A convention of representatives was immediately 
assembled (January 1689); and the crown was bestowed on 
William and Mary for their lives, the succes- 
sion being settled on the Princess Anne, second 



Convention. 



daughter of James II., who had married Prince George of 

Denmark. The convention an- 
nexed to this settlement a Decla- 
ration of Rights, definitely fixing 
the extent of the king's preroga- 
tive, and more precisely stating 
the constitutional principles of 
the government. 

77. The most important arti- 
cles of this instrument were : 
1. The king cannot suspend the 
laws or their execution; 2. He 
cannot levy money without the 
The subjects have a right to peti- 
4. A standing army cannot be 




William III. 



Declaration of 
rights. 



consent of Parliament; 3. 

tion the crown 

kept in time of peace without the consent of Par- 
liament; 5. Elections and 2)arliamentary debates 

must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assembled. 

These acts of the convention were afterward confirmed by a 
parliament regularly summoned, in an enactment 
called the Bill of Riglits, and constituted what is 



Revolution. 



called in English history the Glorious Revolutioii of 1688.* 

78. William and Mary. Although the crown had been 
conferred jointly upon William and Mary, the administration 
of the government was exclusively intrusted to the former. 



* So called, although it took place in 1689 (January); because, until 
English commenced the year on the 25th of March. 



J, the 



England. 499 



James II. having received a considerable naval force from 
the French king, Louis XIV., proceeded to Ire- 
land, where the people were generally favorable 



James II. 



to his cause. He was received with great demonstrations of 
joy, and a large army was soon collected for his support. He 
was, however, entirely defeated by William in the celebrated 
Battle of the Boyne (1690), and was again compelled to take 
refuge in France. The next year Ireland was 
entirely subdued; and the Scottish Highlanders, 
who had taken up arms in favor of James, were 



Ireland and 
Scotland. 



induced to submit to the government. In connection with 
the pacification of the Highlands, occurred the dreadful Mas- 
sacre of Glencoe* (1692). 

79. The war with France still continued; and, in 1692, 
the French fleet was defeated by the combined English and 
Dutch fleets, under the command of Admiral 
Russell, in the famous battle of La Hogue {hdg).\ 



French war. 



This disastrous defeat decided the fate of James, and destroyed 
his hopes of ever regaining the English throne. The war, 
however, was not formally terminated until the treaty of 
Rys'wick (1697). t William, by the death of Mary, in 1694, 
became sole ruler, under the title of William III 
His own death occurred in 1702. He was a man 



William III. 



of great abilities, both for war and statesmanship, and a most 
excellent sovereign; but the austerity of his manners made 
him unpopular. The character of Mary was very amiable 
and exemplary. 

* Mclan of Glencoe, Chief of the McDonalds, had delayed taking the oath of 
allegiance to the king; and the enemies of the clan, taking advantage of this cir- 
cumstance, obtained an order for its military execution. Accordingly, a body of 
soldiers entered the valley of Glencoe, and cruelly put to the sword all who failed 
to escape, including men, women, and children. The signing of this order has sub- 
jected King William to very severe censure. Glencoe is situated at Loch Leven, in 
the western part of Scotland. 

t Cape La Hogue is in the northern part of France, a short distance east of Cher- 
bourg, and is not to be confounded with Cape La Hague, to the west of Cherbourg. 

X Rysivick is a small town in the western part of Holland, 35 miles southwest 
from Amsterdam. 



boo 



Modem History. 



80. Anne. This reign is almost wholly occupied with the 
War of the Spanish Succession, so called because it was 
waged against Louis XIV. of France, who, in 
tlie prosecution of his ambitious schemes, at- 



Grand Alliance. 



tempted to obtain control of Spain by placing one of his own 

relatives on the throne of that country. This had led, in 
1701, to the formation of a league, called the 
Grand Alliance, between England, Holland, and 

Germany, the object of which was to check the encroach- 
ments of the French king. Louis 
XIV. had given additional cause 
of complaint to William by ac- 
knowledging, on the death of 
James II., the son of the latter 
king of England (1701). War, 
for which preparations had been 
already made, was formally de- 
clared against France shortly 
after the accession of Queen 
Anne, who determined to pur- 
sue the policy of King William. 

The chief command of the army was conferred on the Duke 

of Marl'borough (1702).* 

81. During the first campaign, Marlborough made some 

conquests in Flanders; and, in the next, he defeated the 

French and Bavarians in the memorable battle of Blenheim f 




Prince Eugene. 



* John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, was the son of a Cavalier, who was in 
high favor with the Duke of York; and he married a young lady who was the 
special friend and favorite of Anne. When, therefore, the latter ascended the 
throne, she was so much under the influence of Lady Marlborough and the duke, 
her husband, that these were regarded as virtually almost the reigning sovereigns, 
Prince George of Denmark making no interference in English affairs. The corre- 
spondence of the queen and her favorite was of the most intimate and confidential 
character, and was carried on under the names of Mrs. Morley and Mrs. Freeman, 
the latter name being assumed by the duchess. 

t Blenheim is a small village in Bavaria, on the Danube, 23 miles W. N. W of 
Augsburg. 



England. • 501 



Victories of 
Marlborough. 



{Uen'hime) (1704). The celebrated Prince Eugene* com- 
manded the imperial troops in this battle. During the same 
year, the English fleet captured Gibraltar; and 
this strong fortress has ever since remained in 
the possession of (Ireat Britain. In 170G, Marl- 
borough gained another brilliant victory over the French at 
Ramillies {ram'e-leez), and by means of it made almost an 
entire conquest of Flanders. The French also received the 
same year a terrible overthrow from Prince Eugene, at Tu'rin. 
The year 1708 was signalized by another great victory over 
the French at Ou'den-ar-de, which was followed, the next 
year, by the terrific battle of Malplaquet {mal-plah' ka) , in 
which the allied army, under Marlborough, routed the French, 
but with the dreadful loss of 20,000 men. This decided vic- 
tory finished the campaign in Fhinders (1709). 

82. Shortly afterward, Marlborough, being accused of dis- 
honest practices in connection with the army contracts and 
accounts, was dismissed by the queen from all his 
appointments. The parliament also having passed 
a vote of censure of his conduct, he retired from 



Dismissal of 
Marlborough. 



Death of Anne. 



England in disgust, and took up his abode in the Netherlands.! 
Peace was concluded with France by the treaty of Utrecht 
{u'treM), in 1713. The following year the queen 
died. She was very popular, receiving the title 
of the Good Queen Anne; but, according to some authorities, 
she was full of prejudices, easily influenced by flattery, and 
blindly guided by her female favorites. Her reign was not 
only distinguished for military achievements, but was charac- 



* Prince Eugene was born in Paris in 1663. He was the son of Eugene Maurice, 
Count of Soissons, and of Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. He entered 
the service of the emperor, and soon gained great distinction, especially in the 
wars with the Turks. He died in 1780. He was small in stature, simple in dress 
and manner, and kind-hearted in his treatment of his soldiers. 

t Marlborough was af rerward restored to his position in the army. He died in 
1722. He is said to have been so illiterate that he could not virite his native lan- 
^age with tolerable correctness. Avarice was his greatest weakness. 



60'i . Modern History. 



terized to such an extent for progress in literature, that it 
has been styled the *^ Augustan Age of England." The chief 
political event was the '^ Constitutional Union of 
England and Scotland," in 1707. These two 
countries, since the accession of James I., had 



Character and 
reign. 



acknowledged one sovereign, each having its own separate 
legislature; but, since the union of 1707, they have both sent 
representatives to the same parliament. Queen Anne was 
the last sovereign of the House of Stuart. 

State of Society in England, 

During the Period of iJie Stuarts (1603-1714). 
83. This period is particularly noted for the rapid transi- 
tions that occurred in moral and religious sentiments among 
the people, as well as their social manners. 
Party animosity was so intense that no mar- 



Party strife. 



riages, or alliances of any kind, were permitted between the 
members of the hostile factions. *^ Your friends, the Cava- 
liers," said a parliamentarian to a royalist, *^ are very disso- 
lute and debauched." "True," replied the royalist, "they 
have the infirmities of men; but your friends, the Eound- 
heads, have the vices of devils — tyranny, rebellion, and 
spiritual pride." 

84. The Cavaliers were indeed gay in their manners and 
dress, being commonly men of birth and fortune, and they 

• 1 thus presented a marked contrast to the gloomy 

I fanaticism of the Eoundheads. The rio^id sever- 



ity of the Puritans permitted no recreations, except such 
as were afforded by the singing of hymns and 
psalms. Plays, dances, and all other merry- 



Puritans. 



makings were sinful frivolities: horse-racing and bear-baiting 
— popular diversions of the time — were wicked enormities. 
Hence, Colonel Hewson with pious zeal marched his regiment 
into London and killed all the bears ; on which incident 
Butler based a part of his burlesque poem, styled " Hudibras." 



England, 



503 



85. During this period arose also the Quakers or Friends 
— a sect founded by George Fox, who was born in 1624. He 
was by trade a shoemaker; but feeling a strong 
impulse toward spiritual contemplations, he 



Quakers. 



abandoned this occupation, and wandered about the country, 
preaching the doctrines which had been suggested to his mind 
during his solitary meditations. Proselytes were soon gained, 
and a sect formed, peculiar not only in their religious views, 
but in all their social habits and customs. Their zeal was 
soon tried by bitter persecution. 
They were thrown into prison — 
sometimes into mad-houses; they 
were pilloried; they were whipped; 
they were burned in the face; and 
their tongues bored with red-hot 
irons; but nothing could overcome 
their fortitude, or quench their en- 
thusiasm. Driven out of England, 
they vainly sought an asylum among 
their former brethren in affliction, 
the Puritans of New England; but, under William Penn, 
found it in the wilds and among the wild men of Pennsyl- 
vania, as the Catholics, under Lord Baltimore, had previ- 
ously done in Maryland. 

86. Commerce and navigation flourished greatly during 
the first part of the reign of Charles I. The trade to Guinea, 
the Levant, and the East Indies was quite large; 
immense quantities of cloth were annually ex- 
ported to Turkey; and the English possessed al 




Cavalier and Puritan. 



Commerce and 
navigation. 



most the monopoly of the traffic with Spain. Interrupted 
during the civil wars, commerce soon recovered after the 
Restoration, and received additional encouragement from tlie 
losses sustained by the Dutch. The trade with the American 
colonies soon became considerable. At the close of the cen- 
tury, about five hundred vessels were employed in this trade 



504 



Modern History. 



and that with the West Indies. Of these some were engaged 
in the slave-trade. . Tea and coffee were introduced from the 
East, but for a long time were so expensive that they were 
used only as luxuries. Tobacco became extensively an article 
of commerce, notwithstanding '*^The Oounterblaste to To- 
bacco," written by James I., who had a great dislike to its 




Ships op War in the Time op Charles II. 



use. Whale-ships visited Greenland and Spitzbergen; and 

Madras and Bombay became important centers of the East 

Indian trade. 

87. Next to the capital, the chief seaport was Bristol, and 

Norwich the chief manufacturing town. Manchester, now 
the great center of the cotton manufacture, was 
then a small town of about 6,000 inhabitants; 



Chief towns. 



Leeds, the great woolen mart, was but a little larger; Sheffield 
and Birmingham were very small towns; and Liverpool, prob- 
ably, did not contain 200 seamen. The population of Lon- 
don at the death of Charles II. is estimated at half a million. 



England. 605 



The streets, narrow, dirty, unpaved, and not ligliled till the 
last year of that monarch's reign, were infested with ruffians 
and robbers, against whom the watclimen, generally old and 
feeble men, could afford no protection. 

88. Manufacturing industry began to assume that promi- 
nence in England which it at present possesses. The cotton 
manufacture was commenced at Manchester, and 
the art of dyeing woolen cloth was introduced 



Manufactures. 



from Flanders, thus saving the nation vast sums of money. 
New manufactures were also established in iron, brass, silk, 
paper, etc. The trade with India and the Levant led to the 
introduction of many articles of luxury, both in 
dress and furniture. Carpets, from being used 
only as covers for tables, came gradually into 



Articles of 
luxury. 



their present use; although during most of this period rushes 
or matting constituted the only covering used for floors. 
The manufacture of oil-cloth was commenced in 16 GO. The 
Duke of Buckingham introduced the making of glass from 
Venice. 

89. The Stuarts were patrons of the fine arts. The value 
of pictures is said to have doubled in Eurojoe in consequence 

of the competition of Charles I. and Philip IV. i 

of Spain to obtain them. The distinguished I 



Dutch painters, Van Dyke and Eubens, were invited into 
England, and received great attention from the Court. Inigo 
Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, the renowned architects, 
flourished during this period. The former built the beautiful 
banqueting-house at Whitehall; the latter is especially cele- 
brated as the designer of St. Paul's. In London alone, fifty- 
one churches were erected from Wren's designs. 

90. During the reign of Charles II., there arose a galaxy 
of great men, distinguished for their researches in every 
branch of knowledge, Boyle, by his improve- 
ments in the air-pump, was enabled to make many 



Science- 



valuable experiments on the nature and properties of the air; 



606 



Modern History. 



Wallis and Hooke made some valuable improvements in op- 
tical instruments; Flamsteed and Halley were eminent astron- 
omers — the former noted for the catalogue of stars which he 
made; the latter as the first to predict the return of a comet. 
Harvey also announced his famous discovery of the circulation 
of the blood (1628). Above all, however, towered the sublime 
genius of Newton, the discoverer of the law of universal gravi- 
tation. 

91. The number of printing-presses in the kingdom was 
quite small; and, consequently, books were scarce and dear. 
A taste for reading had, however, become much 
more general; and there were many distinguished 



Books. 



Literature. 




Shakespeare. 



writers in almost every branch 
of literature. In the first part 
of the reign of James I., the 

drama continued to 

be enriched by the 
contributions of Shakespeare, 
who died in 1616. Beaumont, 
Fletcher, and Phili]) Massinger 
were noted dramatists of this 
reign, with Ben Jonson (1574- 
1637), who was poet-laureate.* 
Sir Walter Raleigh wrote, while 
in prison, the History of the World; and Lord Bacon pub- 
lished those great philosophical works, The Advanceme7it of 
Lear7iing and the Novum Organum (New Instrument), which 
changed the methods of scientific investigation. Bacon is 
sometimes called the ^^ Father of the Inductive Philosophy."! 

* Laureate means a-owned with laurel, in allusion to the ancient practice of thus 
rewarding eminent poets. Traces of this appointment are found as early as the 
reign of Henry 111. The office was made a patent one by Charles 1., who fixed the 
salary at £100 a year, and a tierce of wine. 

t "The power and compass of a mind which could form such a plan beforehaiid, 
and trace noc merely the outline, but many of the most minute ramifications of 
sciences which did not yet exist, must be an object of admiration to all succeeding 
ages."— Pro/. Play fair. 



England. 



507 



92. In tlie next period, including the reigns of Charles I. 
and Charles II., the most prominent poets were Sir William 

Daveuant, who succeeded Ben Jonson as poet- i \ — ■ 

laureate; Abraham Cowley, who at his death I 

(1G67) ranked as the first j^oet of England; John Milton 



(1608-1674), the illustrious author of Paradise Lost; Kobert 
Herrick, one of the most charm- 
ing of the early English lyric 
poets; and Samuel Butler, the 
author of the satirical poem Hu- 
dihras. The famous poet and 
dramatist John Dryden (1631- 
1700), who was poet-laureate, 
belongs to the close of this period. 
The other most noted contri- 
butors to the drama were Ot- 
way, Congreve, and Wycherly, 
who lived during the reign of 
Charles II., in which the drama, taking its character from the 
court, was shamefully immoral. 

93. The most celebrated prose writers of the period were 
Thomas Fuller, the quaint and witty historian, divine, and 
essayist; Lord Clarendon, the famous statesman, 
who wrote the History of the Rehellion, one of 




Bacon. 



Noted writers. 



the most interesting historical works in the language; John 
Bunyan, the author of Pilgrim's Progress; and Jeremy 
Taylor, the writer of Holy Living and Dying. To the 
^* Augustan period" of Queen Anne belong the i 
celebrated essayists Addison and Steele, the prin- ^pfnoS" 
cipal contributors to the Spectator; De Foe, the I 



author of Robinson CYusoe; Alexander Po])e, the author of 
many beautiful poems and the translator of Homer; and Jon- 
athan Swift, the author of GtiUiver's Travels, and other satiri- 
cal works. The last-mentioned writers belong in part to the 
succeeding period. 



508 Modern History. 



SECTION III. 

The House of Brunswick. 

94. George I. was the son of the Duke of Brunswick, Elec- 
tor of Hanover, and of Sophia, granddaugliter of James I. 
He was fifty-four years of age when he commenced to reign, 
and never acquired any sympathy for the English people or 
their institutions. The Stuart party, who favored the placing 
of James the Pretender, son of James II., on the throne (hence 
called Jac'o-bites), excited an insurrection (1715); 
but the rebels were defeated; and many of their 



Jacob'tes. 



leaders, among them the Earl of Derwentwater, were executed. 
The Pretender, sometimes styled the Chevalier of St. George, 
escaped to France. George I. died of apoplexy while on a 
visit to his native country (1727). 

95. George II. succeeded his father at the age of forty-four 
years. Sir Robert Walpole, who had been prime minister 

■ i during a large part of the previous reign, was 

waipoil. continued in office, and administered the govern- 

I mcnt, in a manner conducive to the peace and 

prosperity of the country, till his resignation, in 1742. A 

difficulty occurred with Spain during his administration, 

partly on account of a dispute with respect to the boundary 

of Georgia, an American colony which had been 

settled by General Oglethorpe in 1733, and named 



Spanish 



after the king; and several of the Spanish cities in South 
America were taken by the English fleets. It was during this 
war that Anson's famous expedition occurred, which lasted 
nearly four years, and in which this admiral sailed round the 
world (1740-1744). 

96. England, in the mean time, became involved in a 
continental war. On the death of Charles VI,, emperor of 
Germany (1740), Louis XV., king of France, setting aside 
the hereditary claims of Maria Theresa (te-re'zali), the em- 



England. 509 



peror's daughter, had caused the Elector of Ba-va'ri-a to be 
phiced on the imperial throne, and had raised a 
large army for his defense. Maria Theresa taking 
refuge among the Hungarians, was acknowledged 



War with 
France. 



by them as their queen; while England, supporting the claims 
of the Austrian ])rincess, was involved in a war with France. 
This is called in history the War of the Austrian Succession. 
The most important events of it were the defeat of the French 
at Dettingen {clef ting-en) * by the allied army of the English 
and Germans, in part under the command of George II. in 
person (1743); and the defeat of the allies (England, Hol- 
land, and Austria), under the Duke of Cumberland, by the 
French, under Marshal Saxe {sax) (1745), in the memorable 
battle of Fontenoy {fon-ta-7iwalf) \. The operations of the 
war also extended to the American colonies; and Louisburg, 
an important French fortress, called, from its strength, the 
^' Gibraltar of America," was captured (1745). 

97. While these events were in progress, an unsuccessful 
attempt to invade England and overturn the government was 
made by Prince Charles, grandson of James II. 
He efle(>ted a landing in Scotland, though with- 



Prince Charles. 



I 



out any military support (1745). Being soon joined by a 
small army of Highlanders, he defeated the royal forces; and, 
having taken Edinburgh and some other cities, he caused his 
father to be proclaimed king of Scotland, under the title of 
James VIII. He next marched into England, but was soon 
compelled to retreat, being pursued by the royal army, under 
the Duke of Cumberland, second son of George II. The two 
armies at lensfth met at Cul-lo'den: and a battle 



was fought, in which the Pretender and his ad- 
herents were entirely defeated (1746). This was the last 
battle fought on the soil of Great Britain, and closed the 

* Dettingen is a village of Bavaria, on the Main River, east of Frankfort, 
t Fontenoy is a village of Belgium, 43 miles southwest from Brussels, about half- 
way between Oudenarde and Malplaquet. (See Map, page 380.) 



510 Modern History, 



struggle made by the Stuarts to regain their lost throne. 

Prince Charles wandered in disguise tlirougli the country for 

five months; but, at length, succeeded in elfecting his escape 

to France. 

98. A treaty of peace was made with France at Aix-la- 

Ohapelle, in 1748, by which Maria Theresa's claim to the 
throne was confirmed; but the war was soon 
after renewed in consequence of disputes respect- 



French war. 



ing the boundary of the French and English territories in 
America. In 1755, General Braddock was defeated by the 
French in an expedition against Fort du Quesne (doo-kane^); 
but General. Johnson gained a victory over the French and 
Indians at the head of Lake George, Baron Dieskau {cle-es- 
ho'), their commander, being wounded and taken prisoner. 
An expedition under Colonel Monckton {inonh'tun), the same 
year, drove the French from Nova Scotia. In 1759, General 
1 Wolfe succeeded in reaching the Plains of Abra- 

Wolfe 

I ham with his army, and defeated the French forces 

under the Marquis of Montcalm {mont-ham'). Both generals 
were mortally wounded. Quebec capitulated after this vic- 
tory, which virtually gave to the English possession of Canada. 
99. Meanwhile, England had taken part in the famous 
Seven Years' War, brought on by a coalition of France and 
several of the other European states, against 
Frederick the Great of Prussia. Principally with 
the object of defending the Electorate of Han- 



Seven Years' 
War. 



over, England formed an alliance with the Prussian monarch; 
and, under the able administration of William Pitt, afterward 
Earl of Chatham, tlie government displayed great vigor and 
enterprise. The want of success, however, of the Duke of 
Cumberland enabled the French to overrun Hanover (1757), 
at which the king was so indignant that he treated his son 
with the greatest coldness. Offended by this treatment, the 
victor of Culloden resigned all his offices, and went into 
retirement, Hanover was recovered the next year after its 



England. 



511 



conquest, and important advantages were gained by Fred- 
erick. Lord Olive also won a series of splendid i 

T • -r T 1 • • L^ '-°''d Clive. 

victories over the French m India, achieving the 

conquest of Bengal.* Before the war was brought to a close, 




Geographical Study. 
What is the situation of : Bengal? Deccan? • Bombay? Madras? Afghanis- 
tan? SciNDE? Punjab? Nepaul? Boot an? Calcutta? Benares? Lucknow? 
Meerut? Delhi? Cawnpore? Arcot? Tanjore? Pondicherry? Lahore? Cabool? 

the king died, and was succeeded by his grandson, under the 
title of George III. (1760). 

*" Clive was indeed, as Chatham once called him, a 'Heaven-bom general,' 
who, with no military training, had shown consummate military genius. With 
nearly as little study of politics, he displayed nearly as great abilities for govern- 



512 * Modern History. 



100. George III. was twenty-two years old when he as- 
cended the throne, and was the first king of the House of 
Brunswick that was born in England. Pitt soon afterward 
retired from the government, and was succeeded 
by Lord Bute, a man of indifferent merit, but an 



especial favorite of the king. The arms of Great Britain and 
her allies continued to be successful in Europe, notwithstand- 
ing her enemies were strengthened by the accession of Spain; 
but the government desired peace, which was finally attained 
by the Treaty of Paris, made in 17G3. The most important 
conquests made by the English during this long 
war were those in North America and India. In 



Conquests. 



the latter country, the genius of Olive had laid the founda- 
tion of the British power so firmly, that the French could 
never afterward regain their influence. 

101. Shortly after this peace, the famous Stamp Act was 
passed, for the purpose of raising a revenue in America 
(1765). The measure was greatly opposed in 
Parliament by the Earl of Chatham and others, 
as impolitic and unjust; but the government in- 



American 

revolution. 



sisted on its right to tax the colonies; and the latter, after 
a resistance of ten years, were finally driven into the War of 
the Eevolution, which commenced at Lexington, in Massa- 
chusetts (April 19, 1775).* The next year, the thirteen 



ment.— Energy,— which perhaps, of all human qualities, is the one most conducive 
to success,— energy and fearlessness, were peculiarly his own. Whatever gratitude 
Spain owes to her Cortes, or Portugal to her Albuquerque, this, and in its results 
more than this, is due from England to Clive. Had he never been born, I do not 
believe that we should, at least in that generation, have conquered Hindostan ; had 
he lived longer, I doubt if we should, at least in that generation, have lost North 
America."— Lord Mahon's History of England. 

Clive's conduct in India, a short time after his return to England, in 1767, was 
brought under parliamentary censure, and, smarting with disgrace, he committed 
suicide (1774). 

* " In order to enforce the monstrous claim of taxing a whole people without 
their consent, there was waged against America a war ill-conducted, unsuccessful, 
and, what is far worse, accompanied by cruelties disgraceful to a civilized nation. 
To this may be added, that an immense trade was nearly annihilated ; every branch 



England, 



513 



colonies, tlirougli their representatives in Congress, declared 
their independence (July 4), which, after a determined strug- 
gle of nearly seven years, they successfully achieved, the 
British general Cornwallis being compelled to surrender his 
army to George Washington, at Yorktown (October 19, 1781). 
Previous to this event, the Americans under General Gates 
had compelled the surrender of a British army under Bur- 
goyne, at Saratoga (1777); and the French king, Louis XVI., 
taking advantage of this suc- 
cess, had acknowledged the 
independence of the colonies. 
A war, therefore, ensued be- 
tween England and France, 
which continued until 1783, 
when a treaty of peace was 
concluded at Paris, one of the 
conditions of which was, that 
the independence of the Ameri- 
can colonies should be acknowl- 
edged by England. 

102. During this period, 
important advantages had been 
gained by the British in India 
under Warren Hastings; but the measures which he adopted 
to obtain money, in order to make the large re- 
mittances expected by the East India Company, 
were characterized by great oppression and injus- 
tice against the natives and their rulers. On his return to 
England, articles of impeachment were presented against him 
in Parliament by the celebrated Edmund Burke, and the trial 
that ensued is one of the most memorable in history. It com- 
menced in 1788, and lasted till 1795, resulting in the acquit- 

of commerce was thrown into confusion; we were disgraced in the eyes of Europe; 
we incurred an expense of £140,000,000; and we lost by far the most valuable col- 
onies any nation has ever possessed."— ^wcfcZe's History of Civilization, 




Washington. 



Warren 
Hastings. 



514 Modern History. 



tal of Hastings. This trial is not only remarkable for its 
length, but for the brilliant displays of oratory to which it 
gave occasion, on the part of the managers of the imjieach- 
ment, Burke, Sheridan, Fox, Windham, and others — a gal- 
axy of great men unsurpassed for splendor in the annals of 
Great Britain.* 

103. Meanwhile the great Erench revolution had broken 
out (1789), and in its j^rogress all Europe was convulsed. 
The British Government, under the administration of William 
Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, took an active 
part against the revolutionists in Erance. After 



French war. 



the execution of Louis XVL, in 1793, Great Britain, Hol- 
land, Russia, and Spain formed a coalition to restore the 
monarchy in Erance. Few victories were, however, gained 
over the French armies; but the English fleets, under Nelson 
and others, acquired great glory. In 1798, Nel- 
son fought the battle of the Nile, in which he 
destroyed the ships that had conveyed Napoleon 



Nelson's 
victory. 



and his army to Egypt; and, in 1801, he fought the battle of 
Copenhagen, and partially destroyed the Danish fleet. This 
had the effect to prevent a threatened alliance of the north- 
ern powers against England. In this year (1801), Ireland 
was constitutionally united to Great Britain, its legislature 
being abolished. 

104. An important victory was gained (1801) by Sir Ralph 
Abercromby over the French forces left by Napoleon in 
Egypt to menace the power of Great Britain in the East; 
after which a treaty of peace was concluded at 
Amiens (am'e-enz) with the French Government, 
then under the control of Napoleon as First 



Treaty of 
Amiens. 



Consul (1802); but the next year hostilities were resumed, 
and England was threatened with a French invasion. It was 
during this war that Nelson gained his most splendid victory, 



* Hastings lived twenty-four years after his acquittal. His death occurred on 
the 22d of August, 1819, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. 



England. 515 



over the combined French and Spanish fleets off Cape Traf- 
algar'; but the great admiral was mortally wounded in the 
action (1805).* 

105. In 1808, the Peninsular War was commenced, being 
caused by the unjust attempt of Napoleon, then emperor of 
France, to place his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, 
in opposition to the wishes of the people of that 
country. Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterward created 



Peninsular War. 



Duke of Wellington, was sent with an army to prevent the 
consummation of this project; and he defeated the French 
(1808) in the decisive battle of Vimeira {ve-ma'e-raJi).\ Sir 
John Moore, who had been sent to co-operate with the Span- 
iards against the French, was compelled to retreat, receiving 
no aid from the inhabitants. He afterward fell in the battle 
which took place at Co-run'na, where the French were re- 
pulsed; and the English troops made their escape from the 
country, with the assistance of the fleet (1(S09). 

106. Under Wellington the war was continued in the Pen- 
insula until 1814; and the victories at Ta-la-ve'ra (1809), at 
Sa-la-man'ca (1812), and Yit-to'ri-a (1813) re- 
flected great glory on the British general's name. 



Wellington. 



Meanwhile Great Britain had been active in the opposition 
made by the great European powers against the ambitious 
schemes of the Emperor Napoleon; and, both by 
her counsels and pecuniary as well as military aid, 
contributed not a little to his downfall in 1814. 



Fall of 
Napoleon. 



During this period war had also been waged with the United 

* "Nelson's whole career, from his first entrance into the navy to the battle of 
Trafalgar, exhibited a pattern of every manly virtue. Bold in conception, cautious 
in construction, firm in execution, cool in danger, he was the most successful, 
because the most profound and intrepid of leaders. The most triumphant death 
is that of the martyr; the most splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory; 
and if the chariot and horses of fire had been vouchsafed for Nelson's translation, 
he could scarcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory."— ^Zison's History of 
Europe. 

t Vimeira is a small town near the western coast of Portugal, about 30 miles 
northwest from Lisbon. (See Map No. XIX.) 



516 Modern History. 

States, brought on principally by the unjust claims of Great 
Britain to the right of searching American ves- 
sels for deserters and British seamen, in order 
that she might seize them or impress them into 



United States 
war. 



her service. This war was formally closed by the treaty of 
Ghent (December 14, 1814). 

107. Napoleon, escaping from Elba, to which he had been 
banished, and resuming the throne of France, again roused 
the European nations against him. This led to 
the memorable battle of Waterloo, in which Wel- 



Waterloo, 



lington gained his most splendid victory (June 18, 1815). 
Thus was ended the great struggle which for nearly twenty- 
five years had been made by Great Britain to check the con- 
quests of the French, and preserve the "balance of power" 
in Europe. To accomplish this end immense sacrifices of 
men and money had been made, the national debt having 
been increased to nearly nine hundred millions sterling. 
George III. died in 1820, after a reign of sixty 
years — the longest in English history. It was 
distinguished not only for its remarkable mili- 



Reign of 
George III. 



tary events, but for its progress in commerce, science, and 
the useful arts, for the general diffusion of knowledge, and 
for its splendid productions of literary genius. The private 
character of George III., in every relation of life, was worthy 
of esteem; but his moderate abilities, narrow views, and ob- 
stinacy as a king, have subjected his name to a great deal of 
obloquy and contempt. 

108. George IV., who succeeded his father at the age of 
fifty-eight, had been noted for his profligacy and extrava- 
gance in the previous part of his life. He was a 
man of polished manners, but was perfectly un- 
principled and heartless. As Prince Eegent he had been 
virtually king for ten years before his accession, George III. 
having become incapable of governing on account of insanity. 
Almost the first act of the new monarch was an attempt to 



Character. 



England. 517 



obtain a divorce from his wife, Caroline of Brunswick. The 

accusations brought against her were believed to i 

be unfounded, and popular sympathy was strongly I 
in her favor; so that when, on account of the able defense of 
her by Henry Brougham [afterward Lord Brougham {hroo'^ 
umW, the king failed in his object, the public joy was so 
great that there was a general illumination. She died a short 
time afterward. 

109. The Greeks having for some years struggled to throw 
off the Turkish yoke, finally secured the aid of England, 
France, and Kussia, whose combined fleets de- 
feated and destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian 
fleet in the battle of Navarino {iiali-vcih-re' no) 



Greece and 
Turkey. 



(1827). By this event the independence of Greece was 
achieved; after which it was erected into a separate kingdom, 
the crown being conferred upon Prince Otho of Bavaria. 
During this contest Lord Byron went to Greece 
to render assistance to the oppressed people; but 



Byron. 



he did not live to witness the triumph of the cause, dying at 
Mis-so-lon'ghi {^glie) in 1824. Among the most important 
events of this reign was the removal of civil and 
political disabilities from the Catholics, a measure 



greatly aided by the efforts of the great Irish orator and 
patriot Daniel O'Connell. The death of George IV. occurred 
in 1830; and he was succeeded by his brother, the Duke of 
Clarence, with the title of William IV. 

110. William IV. Near the beginning of this reign, mea- 
sures of parliamentary reform were loudly called for by the 
people, and a Reform Bill was brought in by Lord 
John Russell, which passed in 1832. The effect 



Refornn Bill. 



of this law was to extend the right of suffrage, and distribute 
the representation more equitably among the dif- 
ferent parts of the kingdom. The year 1834 is 
memorable for the abolition of slavery through- 



Abolition of 
slavery. 



out all the British colonies. The sum of £20,000,000 was 



518 



Modern History. 



awarded by Parliament to the planters as a compensation for 
the loss of the slaves emancipated; and nearly three-fourths 
of a million of human beings were set free. William's reign 
was terminated by his death in 1837; but, brief as it was, it 
was replete with beneficent measures which have made it dear 
to the memory of the English people. 

111. Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and niece 
of William IV., suc- 



ceeded the 
latter on 
the throne, which she 
has continued to oc- 
cupy up to the present 
time (1882). The con- 
nection between Great 
Britain and Hanover, 
which had lasted 123 
years, was dissolved on 
her accession, since the 
laws of the latter coun- 
try exclude females 
from the throne. Her 
uncle, the Duke of 
Cumberland, accord- 
ingly succeeded Wil- 
liam IV. as king of 
Hanover. In 1837, an 
insurrection broke out 
in Canada. Distur- 
bances were also caused 

by the Chartists, an association of radical reform- 
ers, who demanded a '* new charter," embodying 
universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and the entire abolition of 
the property qualification of members of Parliament. Great 
mass-meetings of the people were held, at one of which as 




York Minster. 



Chartists. 



England, T)!!) 



many as 200,000 persons were computed to have been present. 
The demands of the Chartists being refused, riots ensued, 
which, however, were soon put down (1839). 
The next year the queen was married to Prince 
Albert, of Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tha (one of the Ger- 



Queen's 
marriage. 



man states). A portion of the famous York Minster, among 
the finest specimens of Gothic architecture m the world, was 
partly consumed by fire this year (184:0), but was restored at 
a cost of $100,000.* 

112. The prominent events in the next thirteen years 
were the insurrection in Cabul {hah-hool'), in which the Eng- 
lish were driven out of Af-ghan-is-tan', and the 
retreating army nearly all perished (1841); with 



Cabul. 



the recapture of the city in 1842; the reduction of Scinde 
(si7icl), a district on the lower Indus, by Sir 
Charles Na'pi-er (1843); and the war with the 



Scinde. 



Sikhs of the Pun-jab', who, after a severe contest, were sub- 
dued (1849). (See map, page 223.) The most 
important measure of Parliament was the repeal 



Corn laws. 



of the corn laws, by which the country was opened to the 
free importation of grain (1846). 

113. The Russians having seized upon the Danubian prin- 
cipalities, Wal-la'chi-a and Mol-da'vi-a, England formed an 
alliance with France, to protect Turkey from the 
encroachments of the czar (1853). This led to 



Crinnean War. 



the Crim'e-an War, during which the allied fleets blockaded 
the harbor of Sebastopol, and, after a siege of eleven months, 
captured the city (1855). During this siege were fought 
the celebrated battles of Al'ma, Balakla'va, and Ink'erman, 
in the second of which the '^Six Hundred" made their 

* This structure was built chiefly in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
Its length is 534 feet, and its extreme breadth 250 feet, being considerably longer 
than Westminster Abbey or St. Paul's Cathedral. It was set on fire, in 1829, by 
a maniac; and the repairs from this conflagration were not completed, when, 
through the carelessness of a workman, that in 1840 occurred, destroying the south- 
west tower, with its fine peal of bells, and the roof of the nave. 



520 



Modern History. 



famous charge. The fortifications defending the city were of 
immense extent and strength, and the French greatly dis- 
tinguished themselves by the vigor and gallantry of their 
assaults. The Mal'akoff and Redan', two of the strongest 
works, were stormed by them, after the English troops had 
failed in the attempt. Peace was signed with Russia in 1856. 
In the same year, the kingdom of Oude {pwd) 
was annexed to British India; and a war with 



Oude. 



Persia, after the taking of Bushire {hoo-slieer') and other 

towns, was ended by a treaty (1857). 

114. The year 1857 is remarkable for the Indian mutiny, 

which broke out at Mee'rut,* and was followed by the massacre 
of the English officers and residents, by the in- 
human monster Nana Sahib {sali'eeh) at Oawn'- 



Indian mutiny. 



pore, t 



Delhi {deVle) was seized by the Sepoys (native troops) ; 

but was retaken after a 
two months' siege and the 
most desperate fighting. At 
Luck'nowf 50,000 rebels 
besieged an English force 
of less than 500 persons for 
nearly three months; but 
they were at last relieved 
by General Hav'e-lock, who 
with a small force achieved 
Map op the Crimea. several victories ovcr the 

rebel armies. Nena Sahib was defeated by Sir Col'in Camp- 
bell, and the insurrection was subdued (1859). The dreadful 
atrocities perpetrated on men, women, and children during 
this war by the native troops, and the horrible punishments 
afterward inflicted on the latter by the British, find scarcely a 




* Meerut is situated about 35 miles northeast from Delhi, a noted city of Hindo- 
stan, on the Jumna, an affluent of the Ganges. (See map, page 511.) 

t Cawnpore and Lucknow are important towns in Hindostan, the former on the 
Ganges, the latter on a tributary to it. They are some distance east of Delhi. 



England. 



521 



parallel in history. The East India Company was deprived 
of its power at the close of this war, and the government 
vested wholly in the queen, being administered by a viceroy. 
Later the queen was by act of Parliament proclaimed Empress 
of India (187G). 

115. Wars were also waged against the Chinese. The first 
was caused by the seizure of opium imported into China con- 
trary to her laws by British merchants. At the 
close, China was compelled to cede Hong Kong * 



Chinese wars. 



to Great Britain, and to open five of her seaports to British 
commerce, besides paying twenty-one millions of dollars as 
indemnity for the expenses of 
the war (1842). In 1856 hos- 
tilities were renewed; and Can- 
ton was bombarded and occu- 
pied. Some time afterward the 
combined forces of the French 
and English took Pekin, and the 
emperor was comiDelled to flee. 
The Chinese then submitted to 
the demands of the English, one 
of which was that China should 
be open to the commerce of the 
world, and that a British minister should be permitted to 
reside at Pekin (1860). 

116. Toward the close of 1861, the British nation was 
filled with mourning by the sudden death of Prince Albert, 
who, by his earnest efforts in behalf of useful 
enterprises and his many virtues, had endeared 
himself to the whole people. Other interesting 




Victoria. 



Dea^h of 
Prince Albert. 



events in the following period were the laying of the Atlantic 
cable (1866); the passage of the Second Eeform Bill (1867), by 



* Hong Kong is an island at the mouth of the estuary which leads to Canton, in 
the southeastern part of China. 



529 Modern History. 



which the elective franchise was greatly extended; the Abys- 
sinian war, in which King Theodore was defeated (1868); the 
disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869); and 
the passage of the first Irish land bill (1870), 



Other events. 



designed to regulate the relations between landlords and ten- 
ants, and giving to the latter several privileges. 

117. In the same year (1870), popular education in Great 
Britain was placed on a more efficient basis by the passage of 
a law under which school boards were elected 
throughout the country, and great improvements 



Education. 



effected. Later a war broke out with the Ashantees in Africa, 
growing out of their attacks upon a tribe friendly 
to the English (1872). Under Sir Garnet Wol- 



Ashantee war. 



seley {wooVzlee), the English army defeated the barbarous 
king, and burned his capital, Ooomassic. This was soon 
followed by a treaty of peace (1873). In 1872, the Ballot 
Act was passed, which prescribed a closed ballot for members 
of parliament. Dr. Livingstone, the celebrated 
African explorer, died this year, in Central 



Dr. Livingstone. 



Africa, and his remains were taken to England and buried 
with great ceremony in "Westminster Abbey. In 1875, Great 
Britain purchased from the Khedive of Egypt a 
one-half ownership of the Suez Canal, with the 



Suez Canal. 



view to protect its route to India. 

118. In 1877, a British force entered and took possession 
of the Transvaal Bepublic, in South Africa. This subsequent- 
ly led to a difficulty with the Boers, living in the 
Transvaal, by whom a British force was dis- 



astrously defeated (1880); but the matter was afterward 
amicably settled, a treaty being made with the Boers. The 
British interests were involved in the war be- 
tween Eussia and Turkey — the Eastern War of 



Eastern war. 



1877-8 — and, during the negotiations under the administra- 
tion of the English prime minister, the Earl of Beaconsfield, 
Turkey ceded the government of Cyprus to Great Britain, 



England. 



523 



wliicli cession was afterward confirmed by the Treaty of 
Berlin (1878). 

119. In 1878 occurred the war in Afghanistan, in which 
the country was invaded by the British from India, some of its 
chief cities occupied, and full submission to British demands 
compelled. In the same year a war broke out with the Zulus 
{zoo'looz), a fierce and barbarous tribe of South Africa; and, 
in January, 1879, a British force was attacked by 
the savages, and almost destroyed. This led to de- 



Zulu war. 



cided measures, and, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, the war was 
brought to speedy termination, many of the villages of the Zu- 
lus being burned and their king 
captured (1879). In a skirmish 
in this war, the i ^~ 

1 T-» • X Prince Imperial. 

French Prince Im- I 
perial, son of Naj^oleon III., 
who had gone out to Africa to 
witness the operations of the 
war, was killed. The admin- 
istration of Glad- 
stone * succeeded 




Gladstone. 



Gladstone. 



that of Beaconsfield,t and was 
signalized by the joassage of 
the Irish Land Bill (1881), rendered necessary by 
disturbances in Ireland, growing out of the 



Ireland. 



oppressive relations existing between the landlords and the 
peasant tenantry. Some of the evils complained of were re- 
moved by the measure which the minister introduced and 
carried through Parliament, after a great struggle. 

* William E. Gladstone, celebrated not only as a statesman and orator, but as a 
scholar and author, was born in 1809. He has been connected with some of the most 
important measures- of the British Government during the last thirty years. 

t The Earl of Beaconsfield, better known as Benjamin Disraeli, son of the cele- 
brated writer Isaac Disraeli, was born in 1805, of a Jewish family. He won dis- 
tinction 'Doth in the field of literature and politics. His course in Parliament was 
a very distinguished one, both as a Tory leader and minister. In 1877, he became 
a member of the House of Lords with his title as earl. He died in 1881, 



524 Modern History. 



State of Society in England, 

During the Brunswick Period, from 1714 to the Present Time. 
120. During the period of the first three Georges (1714- 
1820), the British Government assumed a settled character, 
and, as the people advanced in intelligence, be- 
came more and more dependent upon their 



Government. 



wishes. The king ruled through his ministers, who could 
continue in office only as long as they retained the support of 
Parliament. The royal authority in England has ever since 
been subordinate to public opinion. In the present century 
this has been illustrated by the repeal of the corn and naviga- 
tion laws, parliamentary reform, and other liberal measures.* 
121. (During the first part of this period, religion was at a 
very low ebb among all classes. The clergy, often ordained 
without any regard to their intellectual and spirit- 
ual attainments, but simply as a provision for the 



Religion. 



younger sons of aristocratic families, neglected the duties of 
their sacred calling to indulge in fox-hunting, gaming, and 
the pleasures of the table J I The preaching of 

llnV( 



Wliitefield and 
Wesley. 



George Whitefield \ and John Wesley % did much 
to infuse into the public mind a higher regard for 
spiritual matters. The religious society which they founded 
received, at first as a nickname, the appellation of '^Method- 

* The emancipation of the Catholics from the poUtical disabihties under which 
they suffered so long, and the admission of Jews to Parliament (1858), are additional 
indications of the progress of enlightened sentiments, and the extinction of those 
prejudices which are the offspring of ignorance and bigotry. 

t George Whitefield was particularly celebrated for the fervid eloquence with 
which he preached to the people. He was ordained a minister of the Church of Eng- 
land, but subsequently joined Wesley and the Methodists. He spent part of his 
life in America, where he died while on a visit to the churches in New England (1770). 

i John Wesley, the celebrated founder of Methodism, was an ordained minister 
of the Church of England, but soon became disgusted with the coldness and want 
of spirituality which prevailed among both clergy and laity. Like Whitefield, he 
was a powerful popular preacher, and like him, also, he preached to the people of 
both hemispheres, residing some years in the colonies. For more than half a cen- 
tury he exercised the most complete authority over his numerous followers both iij 
England and America. He died in 1791, at the age of eighty -eight. 



England. 525 



ists," from the strictness of their religious principles and ob- 
servances. ^ It rapidly gathered within its ranks vast multi- 
tudes, particularly of the middle and lower orders of the 
people. The writings of Watts, Doddridge, and others also 
contributed to raise the religious tone of society. Sunday- 
schools were founded about the close of 1781 by Kobert 
Eaikes. In later years, the progress of pure religious senti- 
ment ha& Deen strikingly manifested by the establishment of 
very many societies for the propagation of Chris- 
tianity, the diffusion of religious knowledge, and 



Christianity. 



the philanthropic aid as well as instruction of the ignorant, 
the destitute, and the suffering in all jjarts of the kingdom. 

122. Much has also been done to promote the cause of 
general education by improvements in the national school 
system, especially by the important school law of 
1870, supplemented by others passed in 1873 and 



Education. 



1876, by means of which elementary education throughout 
the kingdom has been greatly extended and facilitated. 
Various educational institutions have been established, of 
every grade, including colleges for the education of women 
(ladies' colleges), and schools of science. The most impor- 
tant institutions of a higher character are the University of 
Durham, founded in 1832; the University of London, char- 
tered in 1836; and University College, Bristol, established in 
1876, for the instruction of both sexes. 

123. Commerce and navigation made vast and rapid strides 
during the period of the Georges. The trade with 
the American colonies had become very consider- 
able previous to their independence; but with the 



Commerce and 
navigation. 



States it was much more extensive, the principal imports from 
them being tobacco, rice, and cotton. The importation of 
the last-mentioned article from America commenced in 1770, 
the first shipment being about 2000 pounds. At the close of 
the period the annual import amounted to 120,000,000 pounds. 
Tlie same product was also imported from Brazil and the East 



526 Modern History, 

Indies. The English West Indies exported large quantities 
of sugar, together with mahogany and logwood. The gradual 
introduction of steam navigation was a marked 
feature of the period. Experiments with the 
view to this application of the steam-engine had 



Steam 

navigation. 



been early made; but it was not until nearly the end of the 
period that serviceable steam-vessels were constructed. In 
1820 a line of steam-packets was established to ply between 
Holyhead and Dublin.* 

124. The material progress made by the nation during 
Queen Victoria's reign has been truly amazing. The achieve- 
ments in science and art perhaps surpass those of 
all the preceding centuries combined, and bring 
to the poorest classes comforts and conveniences 



Material 
progress. 



which could not previously have been enjoyed by kings and 
nobles. The country has been crossed in every direction by 
railroads of the very best construction; ocean steam-vessels 
have revolutionized commerce and navigation; the electric 
telegraph lias brought every part of the kingdom into instant 
communication with all other parts of the civilized world; 
while the building of iron-clad war-steamers has rendered 
obsolete all former achievements in naval architecture, and 
changed entirely the character of maritime warfare. 

125. In the industrial arts, many valuable inventions have 
been made. Previous to 1718, England was entirely depen- 
dent upon foreigners for silk thread; but in that 
year a large mill was erected at Derby for its 



Inventions. 



manufacture, by Mr. Lombe, who had gone to Italy in the 
disguise of a common workman, and taken drawings of the 
silk-throwing machinery in use in that country. Immense 
quantities of organzine, or twisted, thread were thereafter pro- 



* Robert Fulton, an American, in 1807, made the first successful voyage by steam 
from New York to Albany, in a steamboat called the Clermont. Five years later a 
steamboat was started on the Clyde by Henry Bell, a former associate of Fulton; 
and thus was commenced steam navigatioia in Great Britain, 



England. 527 



duced. The cotton mjinufacture now took precedence of 
that of wool, which previously had been the chief material of 
Englisli fabrics. This change was largely due to the carding- 
machine and the spinning-jenny invented by James Har- 
greaves,* but priucipally to the invention of the spinning- 
frame by Sir Richard Arkwright.f In 1771, Arkwright 
erected a large factory which was worked by water ])ower. 
The World's Fair of 1851, and similar exhibitions 
since, have illustrated the progress of Great Brit- 



Industnal arts. 



dn in the industrial arts, including the inventions of ma- 
chinery and mechanical appliances during the j^resent cen- 
tury. She has occupied a leading position in this respect 
among the nations of the world. The metallic wares of Bir- 
mingham, the cutlery of Siieffield, the cotton fabrics of Man- 
chester, and the various manufactured articles of Glasgow and 
other large towns, supply the markets of the world. 

126. To all these branches of manufacturing industry a 
wonderful impulse was given in the latter part 
of the eigliteenth century by the application of 



Steam-engine. 



steam. James Wait J made his celebrated invention of the 



* James Hargrea^^es was an illiterate artisan, supporting: himself and family by 
spinning. In 1700 he invented the carding-machine as a substitute for carding by 
hand. The spinning-jenny, by which he was enabled to spin a large number of 
threads at the same time, was invented by accident in 1704. He died in 1768. 

+ Richard Arkxoright, born in 1733, was originally a barber. In 1707 he devoted 
himself to making improvements in cotton-spinning ; and the next year produced 
the spinning-frame, which consisted chiefly of two pairs of rollers, the first pair 
moving slowly in contact, and passing the cotton to the other pair, which revolved 
with such inceased velocity as to draw out the thread to the required degree of 
fineness. He was at first very poor, and incurred the displeasure of the artisans by 
his labor-saving machines. He however rapidly rose to opulence and fame, and 
received in 1780 the honor of knighthood from George III. At his death, in 1793, his 
property amounted to more than half a million .sterling. 

X James Watt was born in Scotland in 1730; died in 1810. He was first a mathe- 
matical-instrument maker, and subsequently a surveyor. He began his experiments 
on the steam-engine about 1703, and soon discovered the cause of the inefficiency of 
that in general use at the time. This was worked by atinospheric pressure, steam 
being used only to produce a vacuum. In 1705 he hit upon the idea of a separate 
condenser, and of using steam as the motive power; and in 1709 his model was 
completed. 



528 Modern History. 



condensing stecim-engine in 1769, and introduced, during 
the next sixteen years, improvements in it of great practical 
value. The working of the coal-mines was greatly facilitated 
by the application of Watt's invention. The inventions of 
Wedge wood * also made so many improvements 
in pottery, that he may be considered the founder 



Wedgewood. 



of this branch of manufacture in Great Britain. His first 
success was the production of a beautiful cream-colored por- 
celain, called, in honor of Queen Charlotte, who greatly 
admired it, ^'Queen's Ware" (1763). 

127. Through the sagacity, energy, and liberality of the 
Duke of Bridgewater, and his celebrated engineer, James 
Brindley, canal 7iavigation assumed considerable 
importance in England. An act of Parliament 
for the construction of his first canal was obtained 



Canal 
navigation. 



in 1758. The roads, too, gradually improved; and during 
the greater part of the period travelers were conveyed by 
means of rapid stage-coaches to the various parts of the king- 
dom. The construction of the first locomotive, 
or steam-carriage, in 1804, commenced a wonder- 



ful revolution in this respect; though railways had been used 
to a limited extent some time previously. Locomotive power 
was employed on a railway by George Stephenson \ in 1814; 
but it was not until 1821 that passengers were transported in 
this way. 

128. The fine arts were also cultivated with great success. 
Among painters the most prominent were Hogarth X and Sir 

* Josiah Wedgewood, born in 1730, was early engaged in the business of pottery. 
His many improvements in the manufacture of all kinds of porcelain realized him 
a vast fortune. He was a man of benevolence and culture; and besides his own 
special kind of knowledge, studied natural philosophy with much success. He died 
in 1795. 

t George Stephenson, at first a workman in a colliery, rose to great distinction by 
his singular genius as a machinist and engineer. Through his efforts the locomo- 
tive became a success, the first railroads being constructed under his supervision. 
He died in 1848, at the age of 67. 

X William Hogarth was born in London in 1697. His first employment as an artist 
was in engraving. His moral paintings attracted considerable attention from their 



England, 529 



Joshua Eeynolds.* The latter was the tirst president of the 
Eoyal Academy of Arts, founded in 1768. George 
III. was a generous patron of the fine arts, and 



conferred on Eeynolds the honor of knighthood. In music, 
Handel, t by birth a German, achieved an enduring renown. 
The first oratorio was produced by him in 1733; 
but it was not until 1749 that his sublimest com- 



position, '^The Messiah," appeared. Very many operas were 
also composed and brought out by him. One of the most 
successful works of this kind was the '^Beggars' Opera," 
composed by the poet Gay, to whom it was suggested by 
Swift in 1726. Among other musical composers of this 
period were the celebrated Dr. Arne,J; and Dr. Charles Bur- 
ney § — tlie latter distinguished particularly as the author of 
the ^^ General History of Music." 

129. In scientific discovery quite remarkable progress was 
also made. Sir Humphry Davy,|| the great chemist, in- 
vented the safety-lamp (1816), one of the most valuable 

humor as well as artistic excellence. The most celebrated of his paintings is, per- 
haps, the " Enraged Musician," which was finished in 1741. He died in 1764. 

* Sir Joshua Reynolds, generally placed at the head of the English school of 
painting, was born in England in 1723. His portraits were of unsurpassed merit, 
eclipsing everything that had been executed since the time of Van Dyke. He was 
the companion and friend of Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, the famous actor, 
and other literary men of the time. He died in 1784. 

t George Frederick Handel was born in Saxony in 1G84. At the age of fourteen, 
he produced his first opera at Hamburg. He went to England in 1710, and soon 
became exceedingly popular. A liberal pension was settled on him by George I., 
and his oratorios were frequently attended by the king and the royal family. He 
died in 1759, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a handsome monument 
was erected to his memory. 

X Thomas Augustine Arne was one of the best of English composers. He was 
born at London in 1710, and died in 1778. The celebrated national air, "Rule 
Britannia," was composed by him. 

§ Charles Burney, noted for his literary and musical talents, Avas the father of 
the celebrated Frances Burney, who wrote " Evelina," and some other popular 
works of fiction. Dr. Burney died in 1815, at the age of eighty-nine. 

II Sir Humphry Davy was bojEp in Cornwall in 1778. He devoted himself to the 
study of chemistry during the greater part of his life. His lectures in the Royal In- 
stitute of London attracted crowded and brilliant audiences. He was also very 
fond of fishing, and wrote " Salmonia, or Days of Fly-fishing," His death occurred 
in 1839. 



530 



Modern History. 



presents ever made by science to humanity. Sir William 
Ilerschel* discovered in 1781 a new planet, to 
which he gave the name Georgium Sichis, in 
honor of George III., but now generally called 
Uranus. He also made many other valuable discoveries in 
astronomy. His monster telescope, forty feet in length, com- 



Scientific 
Discovery. 



pleted in 1787, was the wonder of his age, but it was ex- 
ceeded by that of Lord Rosse constructed at a later period. 
Medical science was greatly enriched by the labors and pub- 
lications of the celebrated John Hunter, the greatest physi- 
ologist and surgeon of his time. Edward Jenner, who had 
studied under him, gave to the world 
the discovery of vaccination in 1796. 
The discoveries of Priestley (including 
that of oxygen), of Black (carbonic- 
acid gas and the theory of latent heat), 
of Cavendish (tlie composition of wa- 
ter and the levity of hydrogen gas), 
and of John Dalton (the founder of 
the atomic theory),! ^^s well as the 
later researches of Michael Faraday, 
gave chemistry a high rank among 
physical sciences. The researches of 
Dr. Franklin in America gave a decided impulse to electrical 
discovery about the middle of the eighteenth century, and led 
the way to the invention of the electric telegraph by Profes- 
sor Morse and others in the Jnited States. 




Franklin. 



* Sir William Herschel, the world-renowned astronomer, was born at Hanover, 
in 1738, and was by profession a musician. He went to England in 1757, and at first 
devoted himself to music. His astronomical discoveries were very numerous and 
valuable. He died in 1822. His sister, Caroline Herschel, also attained great dis- 
tinction as an astronomer, as likewise did his son, Sir John Herschel, to whom we 
are indebted for many important discoveries. 

t John Dalton was born in Cumberland in 1766, and died in 1844. He was early 
interested in the study of mathematics and physics, and first conceived this theory 
while making some chemical researches. The atomic theory explains the laws 
according to which the elementary substances enter into chemical combination 
with each other. He fii-st published a complete statement of tliis theory in 1810. 



England. 



S81 



130. The improvements in printing, including the gen- 
eral use of stereotype and electrotype plates, with the steam 
printing-press, have greatly facilitated the diffu- 
sion of knowledge, and augmented the number of 
journals, periodicals, and books of all kinds. English litera- 
ture during this long 
period was enriched with 



Printing. 




Literature. 



works of genius in every department 
of prose and poetry. In the seven- 
teenth century, the most conspicuous 
name is that of Samuel Johnson, the 
author of the English Dictionary. 
Tiie history of English literature 
since the Augustan Age of Queen 
Anne, may be divided into three 
periods: I. The eighteenth century, 
succeeding Anne, which we may call 
the age of Johnson; 11. The first part of the r 
nineteenth century, which we may call the age 



Morse. 



Periods. 



of Scott; III. The latter part of the nineteenth century, or 
the Victorian age. We give a brief sketch of each. 
131. The first period includes the following poets: 

Edward Young (1684-1765), by profession a clergyman, the 
author of Night ThougJits and some other poems. 

John Gay (1688-1732), who wi-ote the Beggars' Opera and 

the Fables, considered the finest composition of the kind in the lan- 
guage. He was the friend of Pope and Swift. 

James Thomson (1700-1748), author of The Seasons, the best known of 
his works ; also of the Castle of Indolence, in the style of Spenser's 
Faerie Queene. The latter is considered the most finished of his 
poems. 

William Collins (1720-1756), author of the Ode to the Passions, and other 
lyrical poems, remarkable for their beautiful imagery and exquisite 
purity of style. He died insane. 

Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), one of the renowned galaxy of genius, of 
which Johnson was the central himinary. Goldsmith was a poet, 
a dramatist, an essayist, a humorist, and a general literary compiler. 



bs^ 



Modern History. 




His chief writings are poems entitled The Traveler and The Deserted 
Village; a novel called The Vicar of Wakefield; two comedies, She 
Stoops to Conquer and Tlie Oood-Natured Man; and a charming col- 
lection of essays, under the general title of Letters from a Citizen of 
the World. 
Thomas Gray (1716-1771), a man of learning and genius, author of the 

well-known Elegy written in a 
Country Churchyard, and other 
poems. 
Mark Akenside (1721-1770), author of 
a beautiful poem entitled The 
Pleasures of the Imagination. 
Thomas Chatterton (1753-1770), noted 
for his imitations of old English 
poetry, which he published as 
genuine specimens under the name 
of Rowley; and for his mournful 
end in his eighteenth year. Camp- 
bell said of him: " No English poet 
Goldsmith. ever equaled him at the same age." 

Robert Burns (1759-1796), the illustrious Scottish poet, unsurpassed as a 
songwriter. Some of his longer pieces are: TJie Cotter's Satur- 
day Night and Tarn O'Shanter. 
William Cowper (1731-1800), noted for 
his morbid sensitiveness and mel- 
ancholy, verging on insanity, as 
well as his poetical genius. His 
Table Talk and The Task contain 
many powerful and brilliant pas- 
sages. He also w^rote the humorous 
poem John Gilpin. He was, more- 
over, an inimitable letter-writer. 
James Seattle (1735-1803), author of 
The Minstrel, and a celebrated prose 
work against the skeptical philoso- 
phy, entitled an Essay on Truth. 
132. The chief prose writers of this period are: 
Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), a clergyman, who wrote the well-known 

devotional work. The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul. 
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), renowned especially as an essayist and poet. 
His chief works are: A collection of essays called The Rambler, a 




Burns. 



England. 



588 



Prose writers. 




Byron. 



romance styled Basselas, several poems, the Lives of the Poets, besides 
his great work, the English Dictionary. 

Edmund Burke (1730-1797), a noted orator as well as 
writer. His best known works are: An Essay on 
the Sublime and Beautiful and Reflections on the French Revolution. 

David Hume (1711-1776), author of 
tlie lllatory of England, and sev- 
eral philosophical works. 

William Robertson (1721-1793), a na- 
tive of Scotland, noted for his his- 
tories, of Charles V. of Germany, 
of Scotland, and of America. 

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), author 
of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire. 

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768), a clergy- 
man by profession, the author of 
Tristram Shandy and tlie Senti- 
mental Journey, noted for their 
humor, satire, and original style. 

Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett were the most noted novelists of the pe- 
riod. Horace Walpole (1717-1797), the author of The Castle of Otranto, 

may also be mentioned here. 
133. The second period in- 
cludes the following poets: 
John Keats (1796-4821), author of 
Endymion and Hy- 

perion, with several Second period. 

minor poems. 

Lord Byron (George Gordon Noel) 
(1788-1824) was perhaps the most 
brilliant genius of this period; his 
chief poems are Childe Harold, 
The Corsair, Don Juan, and the 
dramas Cain and Manfred. His 
poems contain lofty flights of 
imagination, with splendid diction and imagery, but are greatly dis- 
figured by his moody, misanthropic turn of mind. 
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), author of many splendid poems and 
dramas. His genius was of the higliest order; but he was very 
eccentric both as a writer and a man. 




Wordsworth. 



634 



Modern Misiory. 




Scott. 
Wordswortli were called the 



Thomas Moore (1779-1853), noted particularly for his melodies. His 
longest piece is Lalla Rookh, an Oriental romantic poem, abounding 
in beautiful passages. 
Thomas Campbell (1777-1844), author of Pleasures of Hope, Gertrude of 

Wyoming, Ilohenlinden, and sev- 
eral smaller pieces. His odes are 
especially admired. 
William Wordsworth (1770-1850), 
Poet-Laureate of England, author 
of The Excursion, Ode on the Inti- 
mations of Immortality, and many 
other poems. 
Robert Southey (1774-1843), the writer 
of many poems, as well as prose 
works. 
Samuel T. Coleridge (1772-1834), a 
writer of genius both in prose and 
poetry. Coleridge, Southey, and 
Lake poets," because they resided for 
a time in the picturesque region of northwestern England, which 
abounds in lakes. 
James Montgomery (1771-1854), author. of many beautiful poems, in- 
cluding hymns. 
Robert PoUok (1799-1827), author of 

Ihe Course of Time. 
Felicia D. Hemans (Mrs.) (1794-1835), 
authoress of many popular poems. 
Letitia E. Landon (1802-1838), a poetess 
and novelist of remarkable genius. 
Thomas Hood (1798-1845), the far- 
famed humorist, author of many 
pathetic pieces, Tiie Bridge of 
Sighs, Song of the Shirt, etc. 
J. Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862), a dis- 
tinguished dramatist, who wrote 
William Tell, The Hunchback, etc. 
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), more noted as a novelist than a poet, was 
the author of many poems of great merit, as The Lay of the Last 
Minstrel, The Lady of the Lake, and Marmion. 
Samuel Rogers (1763-1855), author of Pleasures of Memory, also Italy 
and other much-admired poems. 




Tennyson. 



England. 



ms 



134. Tlie princi2)al prose writers of this period are: 
Frances Burney (Coimtess D'Arblay) (1752-1840), daughter 




Macaulay. 



of Dr. Charles Burney; she was noted for her novels, Prose writers. 

particularly Evelina, and for her Diary. 

Anna Letitia Barbauld (Mrs. ) (1743-1825), celebrated for her books for 

children, — Early Lessons, Hymns in 
Prose, etc. 
Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), a writer 
of moral fiction, and many inter- 
esting works for children. 
Dugald Stewart (1753-1828), author of 
several works on moral and intellec- 
tual philosophy. 
Sir James Mackintosh (1765-1832), bril- 
liant as a statesman, a lawyer, and 
a writer. 
Henry Hallam (1778-1859), author of 
the History of the Middle Ages, 
Literature of Europe, etc. 
John Lingard (1771-1851), author of the History of England. 
Thomas Arnold (1795-1842), of Rugby fame, author of the History of 
Rome, and Lectures on Modern 
History. 
Lord JeflErey (1773-1853), editor of 
the Edinhurgh Remew, and dis- 
tinguished as an essayist and 
critic. 
Lord Brougham (1779-1868), brilliant 
as a statesman and an orator, 
and a very versatile writer. 
Charles Lamb (1775-1834), a humor- 
ist and original writer, best 

known for his Essays of Elia. \i£ ^ " ^^^^^^^^SMIW 

Thomas de Quincey (1786-1859), 
known as the English Opium 
Eater, one of the most bril- 
liant and versatile writers of his age, — a great master of the English 
language. 

135. The Victorian Age iiidudes the following poets: 
Alfred Tennyson (born 1809), author of Ln Memoriam, Ljocksley Hall, 
Idyls of the King, etc. Most of his poems are much admired. 




George Eliot. 



t)H6 



Modem History. 



Elizabeth B. Browning (1809-1861), a poetess of great power and origi 
nality. Her best known poem is Aurora Leigh. 



Prose writers. 




Dickens. 



Victorian Age. Robert Browning (born 1812), husband of E. B. Brown- 
ing, considered by some one of tlie greatest poets of 
the time. His cliief writings 
are dramas. 
Jean Ingelow (Miss) (born 1830), a 

lyric poet of great genius. 
Algernon C. Swinburne (born 1843), 
author of many tine poems. 
136. The prose writers of 
this period are very numerous 
in every depart- 
ment. Only a few 
can here be mentioned. 
Thomas B. Macaulay (1800-1859), a 
brilHant essayist, critic, and his- 
torian; liis Miscellaneous Essays 
and the History of Englanid are tiie best known of his works. 
Lord Lytton (Bulwer) (1805-1873), especially noted as a novelist; author 
of Rienzi, Last Days of Pompeii, etc. , besides many poems. 

George Eliot (Mrs. Lewes) (1820-1880), 
among the most gifted writers of 
her time; her chief works are 
novels, among which Adain Bede, 
Jiomola, and Middlemarch are per- 
liiips the most celebrated. 
, Charles Dickens (1812-1870), one of the 
greatest of novelists; his works 
are numerous and exceedingly 
popular. 
Charles Kingsley (1819-1875), author 
of Alton Locke and other novels of 
great merit. 
Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855), a novelist 
of great fame, author of Jane Eyre and other works of merit. 
William M. Thackeray (1811-1863), am eminent novelist, author of 

Vanity Fair, Henry Esmond, The Virginians, etc. 
Archibald Alison (Sir) (1792-1867), author of History of Europe, and Life 
of Marlborough, 




Thackeray. 



England. 



mi 



George Grote (1794-1876), author of History of Greece, aud other histori- 
cal works, showing profound schohirship and research. 
Charles Merivale (Kev.) (1808-1874), author of History of the Romans 

and other historical w^orks. 
James A. Froude (born 1818), author of the History of England, etc. 
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), one of the profoundest thinkers of his 

time, author of System of Logic, etc. 
Henry T. Buckle (1822-1862), author of History of Civilization, a very 

great work, which he did not live to complete. 
Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of Beaconslield) (1805-1881), a writer of great 
eminence, particularly in the field of fictitious literature. His best 
known novels are Vivian Orey, Venetia, and Lothair. 
Charles Kingsley (Rev.) (1819-1875), author of Alton Locke, Hypatia, and 

other novels of great merit. 
William E. Gladstone (born 1809), a writer of great scholarship and cul- 
ture, author of Juventus Mundi, Homeric Studies, etc. 
Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), a very powerful and original writer, author 

of The French liewhition, lAfe of 
Frederick the Great, and many 
other works. 

137. Among scientific writers 
may be enumerated i 

•^ Scientific writers 

the following: 1 

David Brewster (1781-1863), author of 

Natural Magic, etc. 
Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875), noted 

for his geological writings. 
Hugh Miller (1802-1856), also noted 
for his works on geological sub- 
jects. 
William Whewell, D.D. (1795-1866), 
author of the History of the Inductive Sciences. 
John Tyndall (born 1820), author of many works on physical science. 
Herbert Spencer (born 1820), one of the most distinguished scientists and 

philosophers of his time. 
Charles Darwin (born 1809), an eminent naturalist, author of The Origin 
of Species and other works presenting various original scientific 
theories, constituting what has been called the "Darwinian Philos- 
ophy." 
Thomas H. Huxley (born 1825), noted for his researches in zoology, aud 
his lectures and writings on different branches of physical science. 




Carlyle. 



538 Modern History* 



SOVEEEIGNS OF ENGLAND, 

From Henry VII. (1485) to the Present Time (1881), 



Line. Name. Date of reign^ 

C Henry VII 1485-1509 

^ I Henry VIII 1509-1547 

I \ Edward VI 1547-1553 

H I Mary 1553-1558 

L Elizabeth 1558-1603 

r James 1 1603-1625 

4i Charles 1 1625-1649 



Line. Name. Date of reign. 

r James II 1685-1689 

^ J William and Mary 1689-1694 

I j William III 1694-1702 

L Anne 1702-1714 

George I ... 1714-1727 

George II 1727-1760 

George III 1760-1820 



I C] 



Cromwell (Protector) 165:^1658 , s j George IV 1820-1830 

Cromwell (Protector). . . 1658-1660 j ^ | William IV 1830-1837 

CharlesII 1660-1685 I I Victoria 1837-^^l\ 

Summary of Principal Events and Dates. 

A.D. 

Defeat of the Scots in the battle of Flodden Field 1513 

Separation of the English Church from the Roman Catliolic Church 1534 

Sir Francis Drake's voyage round tlie globe 1579 

Execution of Mary Queen of Scots 1587 

Translation of the Bible under King James 1 1611 

Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh 1618 

The Covenant signed by the Scots 1638 

Commencement of the Civil War. Battle of Edge Hill 1642 

Execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth declared 1649 

Great Plague in England 1665 

The famous battle of the Boyne. James II. defeated 1690 

Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 1704 

Treaty of peace with France signed at Utrecht 1713 

Battle of Culloden. Prince Charles defeated 1746 

Capture of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe 1759 

Independence of the American colonies acknowledged by England 1783 

Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland 1801 

Battle of Waterloo. Victory of Wellington over Napoleon 1815 

Battle of Navarino. Independence of Greece declared 1827 

Slavery abolished in all the British colonies 1834 

Afghan War. Cabul taken. Chinese War 1841 

The Corn Laws repealed 1846 

The Crimean War , 1853-1855 

Indian Mutiny. Delhi taken. Chinese War 1857 

Abolition of the East India Company 1858 

Death of Prince Albert 1861 

Abyssinian War. Defeat of King Theodore 1868 

Ashantee War. Coomassie, the capital, burned 1872 

Treaty of Berlin. Cyprus ceded to England by Turkey 1 878 

War with the Zulus. Capture of the king 1879 

The Irish Land Bill passed 1881 



Topical Meview. 



539 



Topical Review. 



HISTORICAL CHARACTERS. 

WJu) icere they"^ 

For what noted? 

With what events connected? pagk 

Henry Tudor (VII.) 461, 403 

Perkiii Warbeck 462, 463 

John and Sebastian Cabot 463 

Catharine of Aragon 463, 465 

Thomas Wolsey 463, 465 

Anne Boleyn 4G5, 467 

Archbishop Cranmer 465, 466, 469 

Sir Thomas More 466, 478 

Henry Howard 467 

Lady Jane Grey 468, 477 

Queen Mary 468, 469 

Queen Elizabeth 469, 478 

Cecil, Lord Burleigh 470, 477 

Sir Walter Raleigh 471, 478, 506 

Sir Francis Drake 471 

Mary Queen of Scots 472 

Earl of Essex 474 

Earl of Leicester 477 

Villiers, Duke of Buckingham . . 480, 482 

Charles 1 481, 488 

Sir Thos. Wentworth (Strafford) 482, 483 

Sir John Eliot 432, 483 

Arch bishop Laud 483, 484 

John Hampden 484, 485 

Prince Rupert ... 485, 486, 495 

Lord Falkland 486 

Sir Henry Vane 486 

Sir Thomas Fairfax 486 

Oliver Cromwell 486, 491 

Admiral Blake 489, 490, 491 

Charles II 488, 489, 493-496 

General Monk 489, 492, 494 

Sir Edward Hyde 492 

William of Qi-ange 495, 499 

Lord William Russell 496 

Algernon Sydney 496 

Duke of Monmouth 496 

Duke of York (James II.) 495, 498 

Judge Jeffries 497 

Duke of Marlborough 500, 501 

Sir Robert Walpole 508 

General Oglethorpe 508 

Charles the Pretender 509 

General Braddock 510 



PAGE 

General Wolfe 510 

Earl of Chatham 510, 512 

George Washington 513 

Warren Hastings 513 

William Pitt (Younger) 514 

Nelson 514 

Sir Ralph Abercrombie 514 

Duke of Wellington 515 

Sir John Moore 515 

Lord Brougham 517, 535 

Daniel O'Connell 517 

Prince Albert 519, 521 

Sir Charles Napier 519 

General Havelock 520 

Sir Colin Campbell 520 

Dr. Livingstone 522 

Sir Garnet Wolseley 522, 523 

William E. Gladstone 523, 537 

Earl of Beaconsfield 523, 537 

GREAT EVENTS. 

When did tJtey occur? 

What led to them? 

JMiat resulted therefrom? 

Discovery of North America 463 

Battle of the Spurs 464 

Battle of Flodden Field 464 

Separation of the English Church . . 466 

Translation of the Bible 467, 481 

Opening of trade with Russia. 469, 475 

Rise of the Puritans 470 

Discovery of Virginia . 471 

Circumnavigation of the globe 471 

Destruction of the Great Armada. . . 471 

Settlement of Virginia 480 

Emigration of the Puritans . 481, 483 

Execution of Strafford and Laud 483, 484 

Civil War in England 484, 488 

Battle of Naseby ... 486 

Execution of Charles 1 487 

Battle of Dunbar 488 

Battle of Worcester 489 

Restoration of the Stuarts 492 

Taking of New Netherlands 493 

Great Plague in England 494 

Great Fire in London 494 

Passage of the Test Act 495 



540 



Modern History. 



PAGK 

Rye House Plot 496 

Revolution of 1688 498 

Battle of the Boyne 499 

Battle of La Hogue 499 

Treaty of Ryswick 499 

Battle of Blenheim 500 

Treaty of Utrecht ... 501 

Union of England and Scotland 388, 502 

Anson's Expedition 508 

Battle of Dettingen 509 

Battle of Fontenoy 509 

Battle of Culloden 509 

Passage of the Stamp Act 512 

American Revolution 512, 513 

Battle of the Nile 514 

Union of England and Ireland 514 

Treaty of Amiens 514 

Battle of Trafalgar 515 

Peninsular War 515 

Battle of Waterloo 516 

Abolition of Slavery 517 

Sikh War, Crimean War 519 

Victoria made Empress of India 521 

Chinese War 521 

Passage of the Irish Land Bill 523 

PERSONS OF GENIUS. 

When did they live? 

For what noted^. 

William Tyndale 467 

Roger Ascham 468, 477 

John Hey wood 478 

Edmund Spenser 478 

Sir Philip Sidney.. 478 

John Milton 490, 507 

Sir Christopher Wren 505 

Newton 306 

Shakespeare 506 

Philip Massinger 506 

Lord Bacon 506 

Sir William Davenant 507 

Ben Jonson 507 

Samuel Butler 507 

John Dryden 507 

Thomas Fixller 507 

Lord Clarendon 507 

John Bvmyan 507 

Jeremy Taylor , 507 

Addison 507 

De Foe 507 



PAGE 

Alexander Pope 507 

Jonathan Swift 507 

Edmund Burke 513, 533 

Lord Byron 517, 533 

Sir Richard Arkwright 527 

James Watt 527 

George Stephenson 528 

William Hogarth 528 

Sir Joshua Reynolds 529 

George Frederick Handel 529 

Sir Humphry Davy 529 

Frances Burney 529, 535 

Sir William Herschel 530 

John Dal ton, John Hunter 530 

Edward Jenner 530 

Samuel Johnson 531, 532 

Edward Young, John Gay 531 

James Thomson 531 

Oliver Goldsmith 531 

Thomas Gray 532 

Thomas Chatterton 532 

Robert Burns 532 

William Cov^^Der, James Beattie 532 

Phihp Doddridge 532 

David Hume 533 

William Robertson 533 

Edward Gibbon 533 

Laurence Sterne, John Keats. 533 

Percy Bysshe Shelley 533 

Thomas Moore 534 

Thomas Campbell 534 

William Wordsworth 534 

Robert Southey 534 

Samuel T. Coleridge 534 

Thomas Hood 534 

J. Sheridan Knowles 534 

Sir Walter Scott 534 

Dugald Stewart 535 

Sir James Mackintosh 535 

Lord Jeffrey 535 

Charles Lamb .' 535 

Thomas De Quincey 535 

Alfred Tennyson 535 

Thomas B. Macaulay 536 

Lord Lytton (Bulwer) 536 

Mrs. Lewes (George Eliot) 536 

Charles Dickens 536 

William M. Thackeray 536 

John Stuart Mill 537 

Thomas Carlyle 537 



No. 17, 




CHAPTER X. 

France, 

From 1483 to the Present Time, 



SECTION I. 

The Valois-Orleans Branch. 

1. Louis XII. Charles VIII. dying without heirs, Louis, 
Duke of Orleans, succeeded to the throne, being the great- 
grandson of Charles V. The nobleness of his 
character was displayed in his generous forgive- 



Character. 



ness toward his former enemies, for he said ''it did not be- 
come the king of France to resent the injuries of the Duke 
of Orleans." Most of this reign was occupied in wars waged 
for the possession of territories in Italy. Milan 
was taken (1500), and also Naples, with the aid 



War in Kaly, 



of Ferdinand of Aragon; but the latter afterward disputed 
the French claim, and the French were defeated by the 
Spanish forces under Gon-sal'vo de Cordova, called the 
'' Great Captain," and Ferdinand thus gained almost ex- 
clusive possession of the Neapolitan States (1503). Louis 
attempted to retrieve his loss; but Gonzalvo inflicted upon 
the French one of the severest disasters that ever befell their 
arms (December, 1503). This defeat excluded the French 
from Naples, and a treaty of peace was made the next year. 

Geographical Study, Map No. XVII. 
What is the situation of : Frai^ce'? Belgium? Germany? Switzerland? Italy? 
Austria? Paris? Rouen? Havre? Dieppe? Bologne? Amiens? Sedan? Rheims? 
Nancy? Luneville? Strasburg? Troyes? Chalons? Versailles? Orleans? Tours? 
Nantes? La Rochelle? Boraeaux? Toulouse? Avignon? Marseilles? Toulon? 
Brussels? Waterloo? Ghent? Metz? Leipsic? Munich? Hohenlinden? Augs- 
burg? Jena? Dresden? Prague? Sadowa? Milan? Campo Foi-mio?- Turin? 
Marengo? Lodi? Solferino? Magenta? Ravenna? Areola? F.lba? 



542 



Modern History, 



2. Louis, some time afterward, entered into the celebrated 
League of Oambray, formed by France, Germany, Spain, the 
Pope (Julius II.), and the minor states of Italy, 
in order to check the power of Venice, then at 
the height of its glory and influence. Under 



League of 
Cam bray. 



the command of the illustrious Chevalier Bay'ard, the Frencli 

completely defeated the 
Venetians in the battle 
of Agnadello {an-yah- 
deVlo)', and the other 
allies were also success- 
ful (1509). But the 
intrigues of Julius II. 
soon afterward divert- 
ed the force of the 
alliance from Venice 
and turned it against 
France, with the view to 
deprive the latter of all 
her possessions in Italy. 
In this way the Holy 
League, consisting of 
the Pope, Ferdinand of 
Spain, and the Venetian Eepublic, was formed (1511); but 
the French, under the command of the renowned 
Gaston de Foix (fwah), gained two brilliant vic- 
tories over the allies. That heroic general having fallen in 
one of these battles (1512), Louis was soon afterward obliged 
to succumb to the power of the League, and surrendered all 
his acquisitions in northern Italy. 

3. Louis then formed an alliance with Venice to recover 
these possessions (1513), and, at first, gained some successes; 
but was finally defeated with severe loss by the 
Swiss, who had been hired by the Italians for 
their defense. This disaster encouraged the enemies of 




Pope Julius II. 



Holy League. 



French defeat. 



France, 543 



Fmnce to attack it; and while it was threatened by Ferdinand 
of Spain, the Swiss invaded it from the west, and Henry VIII. 
landed with a large army at Calais. The latter, 
a short time afterward, fought the noted Battle 
of the Spurs, in which several of the French 



Battle of the 
Spurs. 



officers, including Bayard, were taken prisoners (1513). 
Louis, wearied with these harassing wars, shortly 
afterward succeeded in making a treaty of peace 
with his enemies, but survived it only a few 



End of the 
reign. 



First 
enterprise. 



months. His virtues had made him exceedingly popular, 
and he died universally regretted by his subjects (1515). 

4. Francis I., Duke of Angouleme (ang-go-lCwi), and 
cousin of Louis XII., succeeded to the throne at the age of 
twenty-one years. He was of a very chivalrous disposition, 
and was eager to distinguish himself by military 
achievements. His first enterprise was to re- 
cover Milan, which had been lost during the 
previous reign; and, at the head of 40,000 men, command- 
ed by Bayard, the Constable Bour'bon, and other illus- 
trious generals, he invaded Italy. There, in the battle of 
Marignano {mah-reen-yah'no), he totally defeated the Swiss 
mercenaries, 10,000 of whom were left dead upon the field 
(1515). Milan, therefore, surrendered; and Francis wisely 
augmented his influence by establishing a lasting alliance 
with the Swiss Eepublic (1516). 

5. On the death of Maximilian, emperor of Germany, 
Francis became a competitor with Charles of Spain for the 
vacant throne. The election of the latter ex- 
cited the anger of Francis, and gave rise to a 
series of wars that lasted nearly twenty-five 



Wars with 
Charles V. 



years, between him and his great rival, afterward so illus- 
trious as Charles V. of Germany. Both parties 
sought the alliance of Henry VIII. of England, 
and, on the occasion of the interview which took 



Henry and 
Francis. 



place between the English and French monarchs, fetes of 



544 



Modern History. 



such extraordinary splendor were given, that the place of the 
interview was called the ^' Field of the Cloth of Gold." Owing, 
however, to the intrigues of Wolsey, Henry declared in favor 
of the emperor. 

6. Francis unwisely quarreled with his great general, the 
Constahle of Bourbon, and the latter was gladly taken into 
the service of the emperor. The first step of the French 




Field of the Cloti op Gold (From an old bas relief ) 



king 



was 



Defeat 
Italy. 



to invade Italy; but his army was under the com- 
mand of an incompetent general, and Bourbon 
soon drove it into a disastrous retreat, during 
which the gallant and chivalrous Bayard was 
killed. Francis then conducted the army in person; but, at 
Pa'via, suffered a dreadful defeat, all his most distinguished 
generals being slain, and he himself made prisoner (1525). 
He remained in captivity more than a year, dur- 
ing which he suffered considerable indignity from 
Charles V., who extorted from him an assent to the most 
humiliating conditions before he would grant his release. 
These, on regaining his liberty, he refused to fulfill, and con- 



Captivity. 



France, 



545 



sequently the war was renewed, Francis having formed an 
alliance with Venice and the Pope. 

7. Bourbon marched to Kome with a large army, qpnsist- 
ing partly of German troops, whose minds had been excited 
by the new doctrines of Luther, and partly also 
composed of a multitude of adventurers and ban- 
dits, as ferocious as the Huns or Vandals. Bour- 



Taking of 
Rome. 



bon was slain in the first assault; but Rome was taken, and for 
seven months became a scene _^_^ 
of the most remorseless vio- ^=^^-"*-*-\ ~^-- 
lence and pillage, the Pope 
(Clement VII.) being kept a 
prisoner, and treated with the 
grossest indignities (1527).* 
This led to an alliance be- 
tween the kings of France and 
England; and Charles, em- 
barrassed by the movements 
of the German Protestants, 
and threatened by the Turks 
under their great sultan, Soly- 
man the Magnificent, agreed 
to a treaty of peace with Fran- 
cis, made at Cambray (1529). 

8. Twice, however, was the war renewed; and Francis 
degraded himself and shocked Christendom by forming an 

* "It is impossible to describe, or even to imagine, the misery and horror of the 
scenes which followed. W^hatever a city taken by storm can dread from military 
rage unrestrained by discipline; whatever excesses the ferocity of the Germans, 
the avarice of the Spaniards, or the licentiousness of the Italians could commit, 
these the wretched inhabitants were obliged to suffer. Churches, palaces, and the 
houses of private persons were plundered without distinction. No age, or charac- 
ter, or sex was exempt from injury. Cardinals, nobles, priests, matrons, virgins, 
were all the prey of soldierr, and at the mercy of men deaf to the voice of humanity. 
Nor did these outrages cease, as is usual in towns which are carried by assault, 
when the first fury of the storm was over. The imperialists kept possession of 
Rome several months; and. during all that time, the insolence ^.nd brutality of the 
soldiers hardly abated."— iJo&erfeon's Charles the Fifth, 




Francis I. 



546 Modern History, 



alliance with the Turkish sultan. In 1544, he wiped out the 
disgrace of his defeat at Pavia, by a splendid vic- 
tory in Italy over the imperial army; but Charles 
formed an alliance with Henry VIII., both mon- 



English 

alliarfSfe. 



archs engaging to invade France, capture Paris, and divide 
the French dominions between them. The French king 
made a successful defense against the invading armies of 
these two powerful foes, and finally succeeded in 
making peace with both. His death occurred 



End of reign. 



the next year (1547). Francis was a liberal patron of litera- 
ture and the arts, both of which made very great progress 
during his reign. 

9. Henry II., on his accession to the throne, was in the 
twenty-ninth year of his age. He was slothful and luxuri- 
ous in his disposition, and possessed but few of 
the talents of his father. Before he commenced 



Character. 



to reign, he married Catharine de' Medici {med'e-che), a de- 
scendant of the illustrious Lorenzo de' Medici, 
of the Florentine Republic, who, on account of 



Marriage. 



his accomplishments and his liberal patronage of learning and 
art, was styled the Magnificent.* 

10. Hostilities between France and Charles V. were re- 
sumed soon after the commencement of Henry's reign; and 
the latter allied himself with the great Protestant 
champion, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, who at 
once declared war against the emperor as the 



War with 
Charles V, 



enemy of the civil and religious liberty of Germany. Charles 
v., prudently yielding to the force of so powerful a combina- 
tion, concluded with the Germans the treaty of Passau, con- 
ceding to the Protestants freedom of worship (1552). Henry 
II., however, having refused to be included in the treaty, the 

* Pope Leo X. was a son of Lorenzo, and Clement VII. a nephew; and when, 
through the influence of the latter and Charles V., Florence lost her liberty, a 
member of this celebrated family was made the first Duke of Florence (1529); and 
its descendants, for a century afterward, continued to occupy the ducal throne Qt 
Tuscany. 



France, .^47 



imperial army was repulsed with severe loss at Metz, defended 
by the French under Francis, Duke of Guise {gweez). 

11. Charles V. having resigned his throne to his son 
Philip, the French king embraced the occasion to invade the 
Netherlands and Italy; but sustained severe dis- 
asters in each of these enterprises. In the for- 
mer, the Constable Montmorency sustained a 



Battle of 
St. Quentin. 



total defeat at St. Quen'tin, where the flower of his army 
were either slain or taken prisoners (1557). Queen Mary of 
England had given assistance to her husband Philip; and, 
through the energy of Guise, the French gained possession 
of Calais (1558). This was soon followed by a 
treaty of peace between the contending parties. 



Calais. 



and a little later by the king's death, which was occasioned 
by a wound received at a tournament (1559). 

12: Francis II., a youth of sixteen years, succeeded to the 
throne. The year before, he married Mary Queen of Scots; 
and, being of feeble intellect, he was entirely 
ruled by his fascinating queen, who herself was 



Marriage. 



under the control of her uncles, the Duke of Guise and his 
brother. Cardinal of Lorraine. These two noblemen thus 
acquired the supreme power in the government; which they 
proceeded to employ for the destruction of the Protestants, 
or Huguenots, the persecution of whom had com- 
menced in the previous reign. The Huguenots 



Huguenots. 



i 



had, nevertheless, rapidly increased in number and influence, 
and now included within their ranks the king of Navarre, his 
brother Louis, Prince of Conde (kon'da), Admiral Coligni 
(ko-leen'ye), with many others of high rank and great 
ability. 

13. On account of the tyrannical administration of the 
Guises, a conspiracy was formed, under Conde; which prov- 
ing unsuccessful, the Duke of Guise took the 
opportunity of executing a dreadful vengeance 



Duke of Guise. 



on those who had been concerned in it, executing upward 



548 Modern History. 



of twelve hundred persons with the most revolting cruelty 
(1560). This was soon followed by the arrest of the king of 
Navarre and the Prince of Conde, the latter of 
whom was convicted of hisfh ti'eason and sen- 



Cond6. 



tenced to be executed; but the king's death taking place soon 
afterward, he was released. The reign of Francis II. lasted 
less than eighteen months; and he was succeeded by his 
brother Charles, a youth ten years and a half old (1560). 

14. Charles IX. The government was now administered 
by the Queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, who had pre- 
viously selected for her chief friend and adviser the moderate 

and virtuous Chancellor de FHopital [lo'pe-tal); 

and the leaders of both religious parties were 



L'HSpital. 



placed in the great offices of state. The States- General were 
assembled, and proclaimed entire freedom of religion, wliicli 
was afterward confirmed by a royal edict. These excellent 
measures, however, proved ineffectual, in consequence of the 
excesses and bitter feelings of both parties; and the country 
was soon plunged into the miseries of a civil war. 

15; -The Prince of Conde at first assumed the command 
of the Protestants, who were assisted by the English queen 
Elizabeth, while the government was aided by Philip of Spain. 
This war was carried on with great fury, and 
with various successes on both sides, till 1570, 
when peace was obtained by granting to the 



War with 
Protestants. 



Huguenots the free exercise of their religion in all parts of 
France, except Paris; and the administration placed in their 
power, as a guarantee, four cities, one of which was Rochelle 
{ro-slieV). While this arrangement gave great dissatisfaction 
to the Catholic party, it did not restore confidence to the 
Protestants, who entertained a mistrust of the sincerity of 
Catharine, by whose counsels and intrigues the king was 
entirely controlled. 

16. Admiral Coligni and the other Protestant lekders 
finally repaired to the court; and the former gained so much 



France. ^49 



influence over the young king, that Catharine entered into a 
plot to remove him by assassination. The admiral, however, 
was but slightly wounded; and Catharine and her political 
accomplices resolved on a general destruction of 
the Protestant party. The dreadful '^Massacre 
of St. Bartholomew's Day" followed, in which 



St. 

Bartholomew's 

Day. 



many of the Huguenots throughout France were butchered 
without distinction of age or sex, Coligni being the first 
victim. The number of those who fell in Paris alone has been 
estimated at 10,000; but it is impossible to ascertain the num- 
ber of victims with accuracy. This shocking event occurred 
August 24, 1572. The Huguenots were not, 
however, entirely crushed. They repelled the 



Huguenots. 



assaults made on Rochelle, and finally wrested favorable terms 
of peace from the government. Charles soon afterward died, 
having suffered the most poignant remorse for the atrocities 
perpetrated with his sanction. 

17. Henry III., brother of the late king, succeeded to the 
throne; although, in the preceding year, 'he had been elected 
king of Poland. He was a weak and dissolute 
prince, neglecting his duties to indulge in the 



Character. 



most infamous debauchery. The Huguenots, under the 
leadership of Henry of Navarre and the Prince 
of Conde, became very powerful; and the king 



Huguenots. 



and Catharine were compelled to make the most humiliating 
concessions (1576). This led to a contest which has been 
styled the ^' War of the Three Henries" — Henry the king, 
Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre. It was commenced 
in 1587; and the king, in union with the Leaguers, gained 
some advantages over their opponents. 

18. At last, disgusted and enraged at finding himself at 
the mercy of the Guises, and being treated with considerable 

indignity by them, he caused them to be assassi- i \ 

nated. This crime excited a violent outbreak of I 



popular fury against the king, who, in order to resist the 



550 Modern History. 



opposition which he had created, allied himself to Henry of 
Navarre and the Huguenots. A few months after this, he 
was assassinated by a Dominican monk, named 
Clement, who was prompted to the deed by feel- 
ings of religious enthusiasm (1589). Thus ended 



Assassination of 
the king. 



the royal dynasty of Valois, the throne passing to the House 
of Bourbon, in the person of Henry III., king of Navarre, 
who therefore assumed the title of Henry IVo 

State of Society in France, 

During the Valois -Orleans Period. 

19. The wars with Italy during this period led to the 
introduction of Italian art and artists into France, particu- 
larly in the reign of Francis I., who gave great 
encouragement to literature and art. His pa- 



tronage of men of science and letters, as well as artists, was 
so earnest that he associated with some of the most eminent 
as his personal friends. Among these Leonardo da Vinci, the 
Italian painter, was especially distinguished. During this 
period, called the Renaissance (new birth), 
French architecture was modified by the sub- 



Architecture. 



stitution of the lighter and more graceful Italian style.* 
This was true not only of the churches, but of domestic 
architecture. 

20. Hunting and hawking were favorite amusements of 
the noble and wealthy. Each king had a large establishment 
specially devoted to the chase, for the support of 
which a large sum was annually appropriated. 



Annusements. 



Packs of hounds, also leopards, panthers, and falcons, were 

* " Four enormous walls, pierced promiscuously with small windows, flanked 
with ten small towers, and in the middle a large tower serving for a prison and 
treasury— such was the habitation of our ancient kings. Upon the ruins of this 
edifice of a past age was erected, little by little, a palace which, notwithstanding 
all its transformations, is still the most complete expression of the French Renais- 
.sanee. Pierre Lescot constructed only a part of the fagade, in which is placed the 
pavilion called the Horologe."'— Duruy's History of France. 



France. 551 



employed; and a hunting party, especially of the monarch or 
of a great lord, brought together a numerous and gay com- 
pany, among them many ladies, who shared with eagerness in 
the excitement of the chase. Catlierine de' Medici was espe- 
cially noted for her fondness for hunting. 

21. The dress of both sexes also underwent much change 
during this period. The love of luxury introduced by Fran- 
cis I. led to the adoption by the ladies of elegant 
and costly dresses, made of the richest fabrics. 



and covered with lace and jewelry. The hair also was elabo- 
rately dressed, and decorated with nets of rare tissues; and 
ruffed collars, worn at first by women, at a later day be- 
came common for men. The heightening of the complexion 
by paint, and the use of patches and perfumes, were in- 
troduced from Italy. The men wore broad-brimmed hats 
decorated with jewels and costly plumes, short mantles em- 
broidered with gold thread or trimmed with fur, and close- 
fitting slashed doublets with a belt at the waist in which was 
carried a rapier. They also wore trunk-hose and tights. Silk 
stockings are said to have been introduced by Catharine de' 
Medici, who first wore them from motives of vanity; and 
gloves, though afterward common, were at first a royal lux- 
ury. 

22. Tlie influence of women at court received a powerful 
impulse in the time of Francis I. Long before his time, 
indeed, Anne of Brittany had gathered around 
her the daughters of the nobility for education 
and instruction in manners; but these consti- 



Influence of 
women. 



tuted rather her private court, and the wives of the nobles 
remained at home to superintend the affairs of the household. 
Francis I., however, invited the wives of his nobles to attend 
their husbands at court; and, at one time, their number 
amounted to three hundred. From this time they began to 
take part in public affairs, their jealousies and rivalries enter- 
ing largely into almost all political action. Ministers and 



552 Modern History, 



Schools. 



generals were sometimes deposed at their pleasure, and their 
favor came to be considered the stepping-stone to power. 

23. Schools had begun to increase in number during this 
period, though the instruction given in them was largely re- 
ligious, and the discipline strict. The hours of 
study were unusually long, and the rod was used 
unsparingly. Latin and Greek were especially studied, the 
remainder of the time, after these were disposed of, being 
devoted principally to music and religious and physical exer- 
cises. Science began to assume a more rational 
character toward the close of this period. The 
College of France was founded by Francis I., in 



College of 
France. 



1530, designed especially to give instruction in Hebrew, Greek, 
and Latin, hence called the College of the Three Languages. 

24. Among the most noted men of influence and genius 
of the time may be particularly mentioned Michel de I'Ho- 
pital {me-sheV de lo'pe-taT), Chancellor of France 
during the reign of Henry U. Such was his 
tolerance and aversion to violence, that he re- 



Michel de 
I'Hopital. 



fused to sign the death-warrant of the Prince of Conde, and 
he successfully prevented the establishment of the Inquisition 
in France. At the massacre of St. Bartholomew's, the court 
sent a special guard for his protection; but supposing them 
to be assassins, he had his doors thrown open, saying that he 
was ready to meet death whenever it was the will of God. 

25. Distinguished among the men of genius of the time 
may be mentioned also Francis Eabelais {rah'he-ld), the fa- 
mous satirist, who attacked the religious and priv- 
ileged orders; Clement Marot {mah-7'o'), noted 
for his ballads and other poems, which were very 



Other noted 
men. 



popular; Pierre Lescot {les-co'), the architect of the Louvre 
(1510-1571); Pbilibert Delorme \duli-lorm'), an eminent 
architect, the designer of the Tuileries (1518-1577);* Michel 

* The palace of the Tuilleries was commenced by Catharine de' Medici in 1564, 
and was continued by Henry IV., who added a range of buildings with a splendid 



France, 553 



de Montaigne (1533-1594), the celebrated essayist; Auguste 
de Thou {too), who wrote a general history of Europe during 
his time (1553-1617); and others who contributed to the for- 
mation of the French language as it now exists. 



SECTION 11. 

The House of Bourbok. 

26. Henry IV. was in his thirty-sixth year when he came 
to the throne, from which the Catholic nobles at first at- 
tempted to exclude him, except on condition of 
his renouncing his religion, which he refused to 
do; but he promised to give security to the Catho- 



War with the 
League. 



lies and their religion, and to abide the decision of a national 
Council. This not being satisfactory to the League, now 
commanded by the Duke of May-enne', brother of the late 
Duke of Guise, a war ensued, in which Henry defeated his 
enemies in the famous battle of Ivry (eev're) (1590); but the 
fruits of this victory were afterward lost, and the Duke of 
Mayenne entered Paris in triumph. 

27. The war was continued for some time with varied suc- 
cess, Henry being aided by the English troops under the 
Earl of Essex. At last, the States-General were 
called ; and Henry, to satisfy the prevailing 
party, and to secure a recognition of his right 



Henry a 
Catholic. 



to the throne, abjured Protestantism and declared himself 
satisfied with the truth of the Catholic faith (1593). By this 
act he delivered France from a condition of tlie most dreadful 



pavilion at each end. The whole front was more than 1000 feet in extent, with a 
depth of about 100 feet. Henry IV. also commenced a gallery to connect the 
Louvre and the Tuileries. This was continued by Louis XIII., and completed by- 
Louis XIV. Napoleon I. added to this splendid edifice, and Napoleon III. further 
enlarged it. 



554 Modern History. 



anarchy;* and on patriotic considerations, it was approved by 
many of the Huguenots themselves. The next five years were 
occupied by the king in securing his possession of the throne, 
and in a war with Philip of Spain, which was concluded by a 
treaty in 1598, a year memorable for the grant by the king 
of the celebrated Edict of Nantes {^nants), in 
which he confirmed the rights and privileges of 



Edict of Nantes. 



the Huguenots, conferred upon them entire liberty of con- 
science, and admitted them to all offices of honor and emolu- 
ment. 

28. He next directed his attention to the internal condi- 
tion of the kingdom, which, on account of the long con- 
tinuance of civil war, had become entirely dis- 
organized. By the construction of roads and 



Internal affairs. 



canals, he brought all parts of the country into ready com- 
munication, encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened 
new sources of wealth and intelligence to the people. Manu- 
factures, mining, and every other department of industry 
were fostered by his beneficent measures, in devising which 
he was greatly aided by the wise and upright 
Duke of Sul'ly. The latter reorganized the 



Sully. 



finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the 

national debt was almost entirely liquidated. 

29. In the latter part of his reign, Henry IV. formed a 

project to rearrange the various states of Europe, and form 
them into an association,* so as more completely 
to secure the balance of power, and to diminish 



Henry's plan. 



the influence of the imperial house of Austria. A dispute 
having arisen between the emperor and some of the Protestant 
princes of Germany, Henry took sides with the latter, and 
thus gave great offense to his Catholic subjects. He was on 

* " A contemporary estimated in 1580 that at least 800,000 persons had perished 
by the war or by massacre : that 9 cities had been destroyed; 250 villages burned ; 
and 128,000 dwellings demolished. The work-shops were unoccupied, commerce 
was suspended, farms desolated, and everywhere brigandage. Such was the state 
from which Henry IV. was to rescue France."— Z>wruy's History of France. 



France, 



5b5 



the point of setting out to commence the war, when he was; 
assassinated (IGIO), in the streets of Paris, by a half-insane 
fanatic, named Eavaillac {rah-val-yak'). The 
death of the king, who was the idol of the people, 
occasioned the utmost grief and indignation; and 



Death and 
character. 




Sully. 



his murderer was put to death with every refinement of torture. 

Henry was possessed of great abilities and force of character; 

and, as a monarch, was deserving of very high praise; but his 

private life was sullied with many vices and immoralities. 
30. Louis XIII succeeded his father at the age of nine 

years, under the regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici. 

Sully, tlie great min- 
ister of Henry IV., 
becoming disgusted with the 
measures of the regent, and par- 
ticularly her attention to Italian 
favorites, resigned, and went into 
retirement. An assembly of the 
States-General, in 1614, is noted 
for the first great occasion on 
which the celebrated Richelieu 
(reesh'e-lu) made dis- 
play of his extraor- 



RicnsLiEu. 



Richelieu. 



dinary talents. He was made a cardinal in 1622; and, two 
years afterward, became the chief adviser of the king. Deter- 
mined to subdue the Huguenots, he laid siege to 
their chief city, Rochelle; and though Charles I. 



Huguenots. 



of England sent a considerable force to its assistance, it was 
compelled, after a vigorous defense of fifteen months, to sur- 
render (1628). Richelieu himself took an active part in this 
siege. The other towns in the possession of the Huguenots 
were soon afterward obliged to submit, and the Protestant 
power in France was completely crushed. 

31. Richelieu's next object was to humble the power of 
the imperial house of Austria, to effect which he took part in 



556 



Modern History. 



the Thirty Years' War, on the side of the Protestants, against 
Spain and the empire (1635). The war was be- 
gun in the Netherlands, where the king's generals 
gained a victory near Liege, but tlie next year the 
suffered some reverses, the imperialists invading 



Thirty Years' 



1 



French 

France, devastating the country, and penetrating to within 
three days' march of the capital. The persevering energy of 
Eichelieu, however, finally triumphed over all his enemies; 
and the French made conquest of Alsace and other territories. 
32. The vigor of Eichelieu's government excited much 
opposition on the part of the princes and nobles of France, 
and many conspiracies were formed to destroy 
him. All these schemes he was enabled to 



Conspiracies. 




thwart by his consummate vigilance and address, and several 

of those who had engaged in them 
he caused to be executed. The 
most conspicuous among his ene- 
mies were Mary de' Medici, the 
queen-mother ; Gaston, Duke of 
Orleans, the brother of the king; 
and the Duke of Montmorency. 
The last was executed, having 
been taken prisoner in a conflict 
with the government forces. Not- 
withstanding these difficulties, the 
great minister maintained the influence of France, and made 
it respected by every foreign power. Beneath his 
comprehensive genius and indefatigable energy, 
the king was a mere cipher. Richelieu was also 
a patron of science and literature, and to him France owes 
the foundation of the French academy. His death occurred 
m 1642, and was followed the next year by that of the king. 

33. Louis XIV. was scarcely five years of age when his 
father died; and the regency was intrusted to his mother, 
Anne of Austria, who selected as her prime minister Cardinal 



Mary de' Medici. 



Richelieu's 
influence. 



France, 557 



Maz'a-rin, a former disciple and associate of Richelieu. 
France was again drawn into the Tliirty Years' i '^^^ 

War, by the renewal of hostilities on the part of ^ 

the house of Austria; but several splendid victories were 
gained by the French army, under the Prince of Conde, 
afterward so illustrious as the Great Conde, and 
by the celebrated Marshal Tu-renne'. This long 
war was closed by the Treaty of Westphalia, in 



Conde and 
Turenne. 



1648, by which the boundaries of France were settled, nearly 
as they exist at present. 

34. Meantime, the civil war of the Fronde* had broken 
out (1648), caused by the resistance of the people, represented 
in the parliament of Paris, to the unjust and 
oppressive measures of taxation adopted by the 



Fronde. 



government, and probably incited by the rebellion of the 
English against their king, Charles I., which had just been 
brought to a successful issue. In these commotions, the 
court was opposed by many of the nobles; and, during the 
latter part of the war, the Great Conde also took sides against 
the government. The principal leader of the revolt, how- 
ever, was Cardinal de Rets (rates). With much difficulty it 
was subdued in 1653, having lasted about five years. 

35. The death of Mazarin, who had accumulated enor- 
mous wealth, occurred in 1661, after which date Louis XIV., 
from wiiom, on account of his neglected educa- 
tion, little had been expected, suddenly assumed 



Reign of Louis. 



the reins of government. He at once exhibited great 
sagacity and talent as a ruler; and during his subsequent 
reign, which lasted more than half a century, the vastness of 
his military enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the 
internal improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court 
ceremonial, and his enlightened patronage of literature and 

* " The members of the political faction opposed to the government were called, 
in derision, Frondeurs. that is. Slinf/ers, being compared to the vagrant boys 
{gamins) of Paris v.ho fought with slings (fronde). 



558 



Modern History. 



the arts and sciences, obtained for him the title of the Great 
King. His government was, however, a complete despotism, 
its fundamental principle being comprehended in his famous 
saying, "I am the state." The prosperity of France was at 



Colbert. 



this time greatly promoted by the wise financial 
measures of Colbert {kole-bare'), and by the 

ability with which the foreign affairs were administered by 

the prime minister Louvois {loo-vwaW). 

36. The first military enterprise of Louis was the seizure 

of Flanders and Franche Comte (fransh ko7ig'ta); but the 
Triple Alliance (England, Holland, and Sweden) 
arrested his career of conquest (1668). This ex- 



Triple Alliance. 



cited the anger of Louis against 
Holland ; and, having bribed 
Charles 11. of Eng- 
land to aid him, and 



War in HoMand. 




Louis XIV. 



obtained promises of neutrality 
from the other European powers, 
he directed his armies under Tu- 
renne and Conde against the 
Dutch, the king in person cross- 
ing the Khine with the army. 

37. Holland was at first power- 
less against this formidable com- 
bination. Her people were divided into two 
parties, one composed of the nobility, with the 
Prince of Orange, afterward William III,, King 

of England, as their leader ; the other, of the merchants and 
burghers, who formed a republican party, at the 
head of which were the brothers John and Corne- 
lius De Witt. The country was, however, rich, and was pos- 
sessed of a powerful navy, commanded by the two most re- 
nowned admirals in Europe, De Ruy ter (ri'ter) and Van Tromp. 

38. In their first movements, the French were successful. 
Several of the Dutch provinces were occupied, and Amsterdam 



Prince of 
Orange. 



De Witt. 



France. 559 



was threatened. Party dissensions became more bitter; the 
republicans demanding peace, while the Prince 
of Orange declared for war. A struggle ensued 
in which the Do Witts were killed by the enraged 



Events of the 
war. 



populace, and the Prince of Orange was appointed Stadt- 
holder (1672). The tide of war then rapidly turned in favor 
of the Dutch. Amsterdam was relieved from its besiegers by 
cutting the dikes and flooding the surrounding country; De 
Euyter and Van Tromp destroyed the allied fleets; and the 
Stadtholder, by his skillful negotiations, dissolved the Eng- 
lish and French alliance, and obtained the aid of Austria and 
Germany. Thus in two years, the greater part of Europe 
became involved in the war, and France stood alone. 

,39. But Louis, through the genius of his great general 
Turenne, gained several victories over the allied forces; and, 
in the Mediterranean, the French fleets defeated 
those of Holland, De Euyter being slain in one 
of the battles. At last, however, beset on all 



French 
successes. 



sides, he sued for peace, and a treaty was concluded in 1678. 
The war had brought him no advantages. He 
gave up all his conquests in Holland. Turenne 
had fallen in battle (1675); and Conde, enfeebled 



Treaty of 
peace. 



by age, had retired forever from the army. Still great honors 
were conferred upon him at Paris, triumphal arches were 
erected to commemorate his victories, and he received the 
title of The Great {Louis le Grand). 

40. The free city of Strasburg was taken by the French 
a short time afterward (1681); and tlirough the engineering 

skill of the celebrated Vauban [vo-hahng') it was i 

made an impregnable bulwark of France on its I 



eastern frontier. In 1683, the queen died, and Louis afterward 
married secretly Madame de Main tenon (mahn- 
ta-7iong'), who had obtained a singular influence 
over him, which she ever afterward retained. 



Madame de 
Maintenon. 



It was by the advice of this woman that the king adopted 



560 Modern History. 



the impolitic metisure of revoking the Edict of Nantes (1G85), 
whicli was followed by a tierce persecution of the 
Huguenots, an immense number of whom were 



Edict of Nantes. 



War renewed. 



driven from the country.* 

41. The Catholic king of England, James II., having 
been dethroned, took refuge at the French court; and, Louis 

supporting his cause, war was declared between 
France and England (1G89). All the great powers 
of Europe were combined against the French monarch, who 
at once put his forces in motion to forestall the action of his 
enemies. He sent an army into Germany, captured several 
cities, and ruthlessly devastated a large tract of country in 
order to jirevent it from being used by his adversaries. For 
over seven years was this mighty struggle maintained by sea 
and land; and, France being utterly exhausted, Louis was 
compelled to assent to the Treaty of Ryswick, and thus sub- 
mit to humiliating conditions of peace (1G97). 

42. A few years afterward, followed the great War of the 
Spanish Succession (1701). On the death of Charles II. of 
Spain, Louis claimed the throne of that country for his grand- 
son Philip v., whilst the emperor supported the 
claim of his son, afterward the Emperor Charles 
VI. This led to an alliance between Holland and 



War of the 

Spanish 
Succession. 



Germany against the French king; which was joined by Wil- 
liam of Orange, Louis having recognized the son of James II. 
as king of England. The war was carried on in Spain, Bel- 
gium, Germany, and Italy; and the French experienced a series 
of disastrous defeats, having to contend against the genius of 

* " It can never be known, with anything approaching to accuracy, how many 
persons fled from France in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
Vauban, wTiting a few years after, said that ' France had lost a hundred thousand 
inhabitants, sixty miUions of money, nine thousand sailors, twelve thousand tried 
soldiers, six hundred officers, and its most flourishing manufactures.' "—-Sm/ies's 
Huguenots. 

A whole district of London is peopled by the descendants of the Huguenots, who 
transported their silk manufactories from France to Spitalfields. Many found a 
home in northern Germany, carrying thither their arts, their thrift, and their 
industry. 



France, 561 



Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The Treaty of Utrecht 
closed the war (1713), according to which Louis gave up some 
of his American possessions to England, but obtained the 
recognition of Philip V. as king of Spain. 

43. The condition of France was now most deplorable, 
through the ambition, pride, and bigotry of her despotic 
monarch. He sustained, however, his haughty 
mien and pompous state ceremonial to the last, 
notwithstanding he had l6st by death his son, 



Condition of 
France. 



the Dauphin, his eldest grandson, and many others of his 
kindred. He died in 1715, after a reign of more 
than seventy-two years, and was succeeded by 



King's death. 



Louis, his great-grandson.* Louis XIV. left several volumes 
of writings, containing his *' Instructions to his Sons," and 
his letters, which give valuable information respecting the 
events of his reign. This period is regarded as the Augustan 
age of French literature. 

44. Louis XV. was only five years of age on his accession, 
and the regency fell into the hands of the dissolute Duke of 
Orleans, who was controlled by his shameless and 
unprincipled minister, the infamous Abbe Dubois 



Regency. 



(du-Mvah'). The education of the young king had been in- 
trusted from an early age to Fleu'ry, noted for his scholar- 
ship and the prominent position which he subse- 
quently occupied in the government of France. 
During the regency occurred the famous Missis- 



Mississippi 

Schenne. 



sippi Scheme, devised by a Scotch adventurer named John 

* " At eight o'clock on the following morning, Louis XIV. expired. As he ex- 
haled his last sigh, a man was seen to approach a window of the state apartment 
which opened on the great balcony, and throw it suddenly back. It was the 
captain of the body-guard, who had no sooner attracted the attention of the 
populace, by whom the courtyard was thronged in expectation of the tidings which 
they knew could not be long delayed, than, raising his truncheon above his head, 
he broke it in the center, and throwing the pieces among the crowd, exclaimed in 
a loud voice, 'The king is dead!' Then, seizing another staff from an attendant, 
without the pause of an instant, he flourished it in the air as he shouted, ' Long live 
the king ! ' And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately deserted apart- 
ment answered as buoyantly, '■ Long live the king! ' '''—Par doe's Louis Xn\ 



562 Modern History. 



Law, who proposed to issue paper-money on the security of 
certain gold and diamond mines said to exist near the Missis- 
sippi Kiver, in Louisiana, and in this way to extinguish the 
vast debt of the country. Such was the rage for speculation 
excited by this project, that the shares sold for forty times 
their par value. Thousands were ultimately ruined by this 
scheme. 

45. In 1726 Fleury was made prime minister and a cardinal, 
in the seventy-second year of his age; and the country greatly 
prospered under his prudent and skillful ad- 
ministration, which lasted seventeen years. His 



Fleurv 



policy was peaceful; but the marriage of Louis XV. with the 
daughter of the dethroned king of Poland, involved him in 
a war with Russia, Austria, and Denmark, to reinstate his 
father-in-law, Stan'is-las, on the throne; but in this object 
he was unsuccessful. The War of the Austrian Succession 
followed soon after, during which Fleury died (1743). The 
most important victory gained by the French during this war 
was that of Fontenoy, uiider Marshal Saxe (1745). 

46. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle gave a brief rest to 
Europe, which was broken by the Seven Years' War in 1756. 
During this struggle, France lost Canada and 
some of her West Indian possessions; and her 
army was severely defeated at Min'den, by the 



Seven Years' 
War. 



English and Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Bruns- 
wick (1759). The Treaty of Paris deprived France of many 
important possessions, and left her heavily laden with debt 
(1763). The year 1769 is remarkable for the conquest of 
Corsica, after a brave struggle for its independence, under 
Paoli. During the same year was born on this island Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, destined to play so great a part 
in the subsequent history of France. Louis 
XV. died in 1774, after having, by a long course 



Death and 
Character. 



of tyranny, debauchery, and reckless profusion, disgusted 
his subjects, and plunged the country into anarchy an4 



Prance. 563 



ruin.* Indeed, he partly realized the consequences of his 
reckless course, but joined with his favorite Madame de 
Pompadour in the well-known saying, ** After us the del- 
uge!" 

State of Society in France, 

During the Bourbon Period (1589-1774). 

47. Absolutism characterizes this period of French his- 
tory, for the king absorbed all the powers of the government. 
The Parliament of Paris sometimes tried to assert 
the power of the people, but the king could 



Government. 



always crush its refractory spirit by a prom2:>t dismissal of its 
members to their homes. The States-General gave place to 
the Assembly of the Notables, called to sanction the decrees 
of the monarch. Louis XIV. ruled with arrogance as well as 
supreme power. To one who spoke of the state in his pres- 
ence, he haughtily exclaimed: " The state, — /am the state!" 
48. The nobles, except those connected with the court, 
were poor and helpless; for, though their castles were in ruins, 
their fields uncultivated and unproductive, and 
they themselves with scarcely the means of sub- 
sistence, their pride of rank forbade that they 



Condition of the 
people. 



should labor to improve their condition. The middle classes 
{bourgeoisie), merchants, trades-people, artisans, etc., were 
often affluent, sometimes rivaling the nobility in the richness 
of their houses, in their dress, and in their equipages. The 
general condition of the peasantry of France, during this 
whole period, was one of wretchedness and squalor. \ 



•" " A strong, firm hand was needed to grasp the scepter so triumphantly borne 
by Louis XIV. for seventy years ; but Louis XV. was as weak as he was vicious. 
His reign is the most humiliating, the most deplorable, in French history. It was a 
reign unredeemed by any splendor or by any virtue. "—J/ejiri Martin'' s History of 
France. 

t The noble exercised absolute power over the peasants living on his estate, and 
there were thousands of serfs who were bought and sold with the land. Large 
tracts of land were set apart for hunting: and the starving peasant was often for- 
bidden to till his ground lest it might disturb or injure the game. The gabeUe was 



S64 Modern Mlstory. 



49. Under the first of the Bourbons, who cherished tlie 
ove of his country, great improvements were made; while 
the freedom granted by the Edict of Nantes gave 
an impulse to every kind of industry, fostered also 
by the wise measures of the Duke of Sully. The 



State of the 
nation under 
the Bourbons 



successors of Henry IV. were selfish, dissolute, and vain- 
glorious; and while they encouraged science and art, they 
were utterly regardless of the interests of the people. The 
entire substance of the nation was wasted in their costly wars, 
their extravagant enterprises, and their luxurious excesses. 
Splendid buildings and works of art commemorated their 
taste and refinement, while the great mass of their subjects 
lived in penury and servitude. The ostentation and pride of 
the Grand Monarque reduced about one tenth of the people 
to hopeless beggary. 

50. Commerce and manufactures of various kinds were 
encouraged by Henry IV.; but it was during the reign of 
Louis XIV. and under the administration of Col- 
bert, that every department of industrial and com- 
mercial enterprise received its greatest impulse. 



Commerce and 
manufactures. 



He established companies to trade in the East and West 
Indies, thus forming a rival to the Dutch; he promoted the 
manufacture of fine cloths, encouraged the cultivation of mul- 
berry-trees, and the art of making plate-glass, which had 
previously been imported into France from Venice. The 
manufacture of porcelain at Sevres (sevr), and the world- 
renowned Gobelin tapestry, date from this period. Machin- 
ery for weaving stockings was imported by Colbert from Eng- 
land, and lace-making was introduced from Flanders and 
Venice. Commerce was greatly promoted by the construc- 

a most oppressive tax, each family being required to buy a certain quantity of salt 
at least four times a year whether it was needed or not. The peasants were also 
compelled to labor upon the public works— building roads, bridges, etc., any 
required time without compensation, and sometimes to perform the most menial 
and degrading sei'vices for their tyrannical masters, who trampled under their 
feet even the most sacred rights of their dependents. 



France. 



mh 



tion of the Cmial of Lciugiicdoc, connecting the Atlantic 
Ocean with the Mediterranean (1G64-1681). 

51. Among the most important reforms introduced during 
the same reign was the re-organization of the army and navy, 
accomplished under the direction of the great war 
minister Louvois. For the army, schools of artil- 



Reforms. 




Paviuon op Henry IV. at St. Germain. 



lery were founded at Metz, Douai {doo-d), and Strasburg; and 
the art of fortification r ^ 

was carried to a high "^ 

degree of perfection by 
Vauban. The bayonet as 
now nsed was invented 
at Bayonne (hence its 
name), in 1640. Marine 
arsenals were built at 
yarious ports. The navy 
of France at this time 
was large, and powerful 
enough to cope with 
the Dutch. One hun- 
dred vessels of war were built in the year 1G72 alone. 

52. Numerous buildings of great magnificence were erected 
during this period: only a few can be here referred to. 
Without lovmg the arts as did his immediate 
predecessors, Henry IV. was not wanting in a 
taste for splendid architecture. He caused a beautiful pa- 
vilion to be constructed at St. Germain, where Francis I. had 
built rather a fortress than a royal residence; and finished the 
facade of the Hotel de ViUe, which had been commenced by 
Francis!., besides erecting or completing many other struc- 
tures. Richelieu had a great love and taste for architecture. 
The erection of the Palais Cardinal occupied his attention for 
years, but it was not completed till after his death, when it 
became the Palais Royal, and the residence of tlie king. In 
the reign of Louis XIV., Paris was adorned with parks and 



Architecture. 



666 Modern History. 

public buildings to an extent previously unknown; but beyond 
all others in extent and magnificence was the celebrated palace 
and gardens of Versailles (vdr-sdlz'). The Pantheon was 
built at the instance of Madame de Pompadour, to replace the 
church of St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris. 

53. Many scientific and literary institutions date from the 
time of Kichelieu. He established the French Academy in 

Institutions^ I ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ dcsigu to Improvc the. language 

— 1 and literary taste of the people; and was a great 

patron of men of letters, among them Corneille (kor-naW), 
the dramatist. Mazarin was also a friend to art, literature, 
and education. He founded various colleges and academies. 
During the reign of Louis XV. a host of illustrious men 
flourished. The Observatory was erected at Paris, and the 
celebrated astronomers, Roemer (from Denmark), Huygbens 
(from Holland), and Cassini (from Italy), were induced to 
settle 111 France.* The Military School was established in 
this reign. 

54. The first newspaper in France was a weekly, issued in 
1631, under the name, at first, of the Gazette, but afterward 

the Gazette de France. The paper was continued 
til] 1789. The postal service was regulated in 



Innovations. 



1627, the price of carrying a letter from Paris to Lyons being 
fixed at about two cents. The first tax on tobacco was imposed 
in 1629. The nse of coflee was introduced from Constanti- 
nople m 1660; and in 1720, a coffee plant, raised in the hot- 
house of the Garden of Plants, led to the extensive cultivation 
of coffee in the French West Indies. The cotton manufac- 
ture was commenced in the latter part of this period; and the 
first steam-engine was used in 1770, at Shaillot {shd-yo'). 
Street lamps came into use in Pans in 1767. 



* The first of these, Roemer, discovered tLs velocity of light; Huyghens dis- 
covered the ring and one of the satellites of Saturn; and Cassini, four other satel 
lites of the same planet, besides devising a method of ascertainmg the size of the 
earth, by measuring the length of a degree of a meridian. 



Prance. 



m^i 



55. The dwelling-houses of the wealthy inhabitants of the 
cities often displayed regal kixLiry and splendor. Mary de' 
Medici brought from Italy a refined and luxuri- 
ous taste, and patronized tlie eminent artists of 



Furnitur 



her time. Expensive tapestry and Turkey carpets were used 
m palaces; also chau's, which, with table linen and many 
other things now common, were articles of luxury. Coaches 
were slowly coming into use. There was great extravagance 
in dress among the higher 
classes, particularly with 
the ladies. Elaborate head-dresses, 
long trains, and cork heels some-* 
j,s^ times ten inches high are described 
among the eccentricities of the period. 
During the reign of Louis XIV., 
Ill the ladies carried looking-glasses in 
their hands, to adjust their finery. 
The men too were guilty of simi- 
lar extravagance. They wore wigs 
|lj' so finely curled, that to prevent 
them from being disordered, they 
were obliged to carry their hats in 
their hands instead of wearing them 
Fountain moliere, Paris. ^^ their heads. They also frequently 
indulged in very costly jewelry. 

66. This period abounded in men of genius. A few 
only can be mentioned here. Among poets and dramatists, 
Corneille (1606-1684), considered the father of 
French tragedy, and Racine {rah-seen!) (1639- 




Literature. 



I 



1699), his great rival in the same field; Moliere {mo-lydr') 
(1722-1693), a comic dramatist of great genius; Voiture 
{vwah-hire') (1598-1648), and Boileau {Invali-lo') (1636- 
1711), distinguished poets, the latter a special favorite of 
Louis XIV. To these may be added Scarron (1610-1660), 
the husband of Madame de Maintenon, and La Fontaine 



568 



Modern History. 



(1621-1695), sometimes called the modern ^sop.*J The 
most distinguished pulpit orators of the age of Louis XIV. 
were Bossuet {bos-wa^), Bourdaloue {boor-da-loo'), and Mas- 
sillon {7nas-seel-yong'), with whom may be associated the 
illustrious preacher and writer Fen'e-lon (1651-1715), author 
of TeUmaqtie [The Adventures of Telem'achus), a school-book 
in use at the present day. | Madame de Sevigne {se-veen'ya) 
(1626-1696), celebrated for her charming letters, represents 
her sex among the crowd of literary personages of the times. 

La Rochefoucauld (rosh-foo-ko) 

(1613-1680) was the author of a 
book of Moral Maxirns that was 
universally admired. 

57. Among historians must 
be mentioned De Thou (too) 

(1553-1617), who 

wrote a history of 

France, and the 
Abbe de Fleury, the author of a 
history of the Church; among 



Other noted 
writers. 




writers of fiction and litterateurs, 

Balzac (1594-1654), considered the best French prose writer 
of his time; Pas-cal' (1623-1662), who wrote the Provincial 
Letters; Le Sage (sdzh) (1668-1747), the author of Gil Bias, 
and Rousseau (roo-so') (1712-1778), one of the most eminent 
writers of the period just preceding the French Revolution. 
In addition to these should be mentioned the famous musician 
Lulli, the founder of the French opera; the painters Poussin 



* "No nation could present, at the time of Louis XIV., so magnificent a collec- 
tion of literary productions. Italy and Germany were in a complete moral decline ; 
Spain, like a rich ruin, preserved, from its lost fortunes, only a few precious 
jewels, showing a few eminent painters and writers. England, at the beginning of 
the century, had had its Shakespeare ; in the middle, its Milton ; and at the end its 
Dryden; but this literature did not pass beyond the island where it belonged. 
France, on the contrary, was really at the head of modern civilization ; and by the 
acknowledged superiority of its taste, it made all Europe accept the peaceful 
dominion of its artists and its writers."— /)w>ni?/'s History of France. 



France. 



tm 



(poos-sang') and Claude Lorraine; the architects Mansard and 
Claude Perrault (per-ro'); the philosopher and scientist Des 
Cartes {da kart), and the physicists Mariotte {inah-re-ot') and 
Delisle {de leel), with, toward the end of the century, the 
noted naturalist, Buffon (hoof-fong'), and Diderot [de-da-ro'), 
D'Alembert (dd-long-bare^), the authors of the EncyclopcB- 
diaj besides Lavoisier {lah-vtvah-ze-d'), the father of modern 

chemistry, and the mathe- 
maticians La Place {lah 
plaJicc) and Legeudre {lii- 
zliondr), 

58. Above and beyond 
all the literary men of his 
time must be 
mentioned 
Vol-taire' (1G94-1' 




Voltaire. 



who, whether as wit, poet, 
historian, or philosopher, 
shone with a luster sur- 
passing all others. Un- 
fortunately a skeptic in 
religion, he scoffed at 
Voltaire. (From a statue.) divine revelation ; and, 

hence, the brighter his genius shone, the more baneful was 
his influence upon the moral and religious progress of his 
time.* To Voltaire, Montesquieu (mon-tes-ku') (1G89-I755),f 



* Voltaire's true name was Arouet. He was born in Paris, in 1694; and at the 
age of twenty-one was sent to the Bastile for a satire on Louis XIV., of which, how- 
ever, he was not the author. In 1718, he published the tragedy entitled CEdipe, and 
in 1723, the poem La Henriade, in which he defended religious toleration. He 
subsequently spent three years in England, and some time afterward resided at 
the court of Frederick of Prussia on terms of intimacy with that monarch. 

+ Montesquieu was the author of a work entitled The Spirit of the Laics, which 
is still a standard. His influence, though revolutionary, was beneficent; and his 
writings were far in advance of the age, in the lofty spirit of freedom and humanity 
with which they are replete. Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, and the 
philosophers and free-thinkers of their age, hurried on a mighty convulsion which 
ui»ny believe could not long have been delayed. 



570 



Modern History. 



Rousseau,* and the EncyclopcecUsts is attributed, in part, that 
dreadful overturning of the institutions of society that formed 
so terrible a characteristic of the great French Revolution. 



SECTION III. 

Revolutionary Frais'Ce. 

59. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of 
twenty years. His character presented a striking contrast to 
that of the preceding king, being beneficent and 
upright; and he commenced his reign with the 



Character. 



sincere desire to ameliorate the 
condition of his suffering people, 
by redressing their grievances, and 
restoring the financial prosperity 
of the kingdom. He was, how- 
ever, deficient in judgment and 
decision; and, although he select- 
ed for his ministers the patriotic 
Turgot {toor-go') and Malsherbes 
{mal-zdrh'), he soon became in- 
volved in great diffi- 
culties on account of the irreparable confusion 
of the finances. These were still further deranged by the 
extravagant habits of the court, presided over by the young 




Difficulties. 



Marie Antoinette. 



*" The writer who acquired the most extensive and pernicious influence over 
the mind of France at this period was undoubtedly Jean Jacques Rousseau. In his 
works on the Ineqiiahty of the Condition of Mankind, in his Emile, Contrat Social, 
and Nouvelle Heloise, he developed his notions on the reconstruction of society 
with a subtlety, a charm of style, a specious air of philanthropy, a false morbid 
sensibility, peculiarly attractive to the French character, but the effects of which 
went directly to undermine and subvert the very foundations of religion, morality, 
and legitimate government/''— Student's History of France. 



France. 571 



and fasciiifitiiig queen, Marie Antoinette {an-tivah-net'), 
dtingliter of Maria Theresa.* (See page 005.) 

60. Various ministers of well-established reputation for 
financial skill were appointed, among them the celebrated 
Neck'er, a banker of Geneva; but the national 
difficulties increased. A war with Endand, 



Other troubles. 



caused by the interference of France in the struggle of the 
English colonies of America for independence, still further 
embarrassed the government of Louis XVI., by compelling a 
new levy of taxes, greatly to the discontent of the people, 
who complained loudly of the extravagance of the court and 
of Marie Antoinette. At length an assembly of 
the States-General was vehemently demanded, a 



States-General. 



meeting of which had not been called since 1614. To this 
Louis gave his assent (1789). 

61. By the advice of Necker, it had been decreed that the 
representatives of the Third Estate should be equal in num- 
ber to those of the nobility and clergy together; 
and, on their assemblage at Versailles, a dispute 



Dispute, 



arose as to the mode m which the votes should be taken — 
whether the three orders should vote as separate bodies, or 
all the votes should be taken numerically. The latter mode 
was advocated by the Third Estate; and, after contending for 
several weeks against the two other orders, they finally re- 
solved themselves into a distinct body, under the 
title of the National Assembly, and claimed to 
be the legitimate representatives of the French 



National 
Assembly. 



people (June 17). They were soon joined by many of the 

* " Meanwhile the fair young Queen, in her halls of state, walks like a goddess of 
Beauty, the cynosure of all eyes; as yet mingles not with affairs; heeds not the 
future ; least of all, dreads it. Weber and Campan have pictured her there within 
the royal tapestries, In bright boudoirs, baths, peignoirs, and the Grand and Little 
Toilet; with a whole brilliant world waiting obsequious on her glance: fair young 
daughter of Time, what things has Time in store for thee ! Like Earth's brightest 
Appearance, she moves gracefully, environed with the grandeur of Earth: a 
reality, and yet a magic vision; for, behold, shall not utter Darkness swallow it?" — 
Carlyle's French Revolution. 



573 



Modern History. 



clergy. 



Revolution. 



Tliiis was inaugnnited that tremendous social and 
political convulsion known as the French Revo- 
lution, which in its progress not only overturned 



Proceedings of 
the Assennbly, 



the government of France, but threw the whole civilized 
world into violent commotion, uprooting institutions that had 
withstood the assaults of ages. 

62. The king and his ministers, dismayed at the deter- 
mination shown by the lower order, and desiring to check 
their proceedings, attempted to exclude them 
from their hall, and thus susi^end their sittings. 
But the Assembly, through the energy of their 
president Bail'ly (or hahl-ye'), and the eloquence of their great 
leader Mirabeau (me-rah-bo'), thwarted this attempt; and the 

s king showed his 
indecision by af- 
terward sanction- 
ing their meas- 
ures, and request- 
ing all the depu- 
ties of the clergy 
and nobility to 
join with the 
Third Estate. 
But the queen 
opposed these 
concessions. By 
The Bastile. her advicc large 

bodies of troops were collected to overawe the Assembly; and 
Necker, the popular minister, was dismissed. 
An insurrection of the populace of Pans ensued, 
and the Bastile {bas-teeV), a noted prison, was stormed and 
captured by the mob (July 14, 1789).* The excited pojiulace 

* The Bastile was begun in 1369, by Charles V., and was enlarged in succeeding 
reigns. Thousands of persons, many of whom were princes and members of 
distinguished families, were here imprisoned till death came to their relief. When 




Insurrection. 



France. 



573 



then i)roceecled to Versailles, and demanded that the king and 
royal family should return to Paris; and Louis felt himself 
obliged to comply. 

63. Lafayette {lali-fa-et') was then placed at the head of 
the militia, called" the National Guard; but, as its members 
sympathized with the poj^ular movements, the 
kmg was without any support except from the 
Swiss and German mercenaries. The violence of the Parisian 
mob, inflamed by the political writings which 
were circulated among the people, soon became 



National Guard. 



Parisian mob. 



ungovernable; and several obnoxious individuals were seized 

and put to death with great 
cruelty. The Assembly ener- 
getically prosecuted its measures 
of reform, and decreed the en- 
tire abolition of the principles 
and practices of the former gov- 
ernment. They subsequently 
agreed upon a constitution, lim- 
iting the power of the king and 
securing popular rights ; and 
then passed a resolution by which 
the National Assem- 
bly (now called the 

Constituent Assembly) was dissolved, and a new 




Lafayette. 



Constituent 
Assembly. 



body authorized to be summoned, entitled the Legislative 
AssemMy, to which none of the members of the National 
Assembly were eligible (1791). 

64. Meanwhile, several insurrections had taken place in 
Paris; and the king and his family had been treated with the 
greatest indignity by the infuriated mob, whose passions 
were particularly excited against the unfortunate queen. 



the JBastile was captured by the people (1789), seven persons were found in its cells, 
one of whom had been there thirty years. On its site now stands the " Column of 
July," which was erected in memory of the patriots of 1789 and 1830. 



574 Modern History. 



Flight of the 
king 



Attempting flight, the king and his family were pursued, 
arrested, and brought back to Pans. The Legis- 
lative Assembly met m 1791; and, although the 
king had accepted the constitution and promised 
to abide by its requirements, a large party were hostile to the 
monarchy, desiring to destroy it, and establish a republican 
form of government. These views were fostered 
by the political clubs which had been formed 



in Paris a short time after the commencement of the revolu- 
tion, among which the famous Jac'obin Club had attained 
the complete control of the Assembly. 

65. The king repeatedly made concessions to the repub- 
licans, while he cherished schemes for escaping from their 
control; but each month added to his humiliations and to the 
boldness of his enemies. Foreign nations looked 
on with alarm, and sympathized with the royal 



Royal family. 



family. Austria and Prussia declared war upon the French, 
in order to rescue the hapless monarch. This still further 
excited the Parisian mob. They rushed to the 
Tuileries {ttveel're), the palace in which the king 



Insurrection. 



resided, took it by storm, massacred the brave Swiss soldiers 
who defended it, and obliged the king to take refuge in the 
Assembly, by whose orders he and his family were imprisoned 
(August 10, 1792). 

The National Convention. 

66. The supreme authority being now seized by the muni- 
cipality of Paris, a special criminal tribunal was instituted; 
and all persons suspected of hostility to the revo- 
lution were dragged before it, condemned, and 
massacred in the most shocking manner. Lafay- 



Criminal 
tribunal. 



ette, being at the head of the army, refused to recognize the 
authority of the Assembly, but, not being sustained by the 
troops, he retired from the country. The Legislative Assembly 
was dissolved; and having been re-organized as the National 



France. 



575 



Republic. 



Convention^ it formally abolished the monarchy, and declared 

France a republic (September, 1792). The next 

month, the revolutionists were emboldened by the 

victory gained by the French General Dumouriez {du-moo- 

re-a') over the Austrian army at Jemmapes (zhem-map), in 

Belgium. 

67. The Convention, now composed of strict republicans, 
was divided into two parties, bitterly hostile to each other, 
one called the Mountain Party, and the other 
the Girondists {zhe-roncVists). Of the former, 




the leaders were Robespierre (ro'bes- 
pee?'),^ Dan'ton, and Marat {mah- 
raW), noted for their 
wickedness and cruelty. 



Leaders. 



Robespierre. 



Fate of Louis, 



\ 



Among the most eminent of the Gi- 
rondists was Vergniaud {vdrn-yo'), 
distinguished for his eloquence. One 
of the first acts of the Convention was 
the trial of the king, who was charged 
with conspiring against the liberties 
of France; and, notwithstanding the 
eloquent and unanswerable defense 
made by his advocate, Deseze (dilh- 
sdz'), he was found guilty of the charges, with 
very few dissenting votes, and condemned to 
death. The sentence was executed by the guillotine, one 

* " Maximilian Robespierre was born at Arras, of a poor family, honest and 
respectable; his father, who died in Germany, was of English origin. He was the 
Luther of politics; and in obscuritj' he brooded over the confused thoughts of a 
renovation of the social world and the religious world, as a dream which unavail- 
ingly beset his youth, when the Revolution came to offer him what destiny always 
offers to those who watch her progress— opportunity. He seized on it. He was 
named deputy of the Third Estate in the States General. Alone, perhaps, among 
all these men who opened at Versailles the first scene of this vast drama, he fore- 
saw the termination ; like the soul, whose seat in the human frame philosophers 
have not discovered, the thought of an entire people sometimes concentrates itself 
in the individual, the least known in the great mass."— Lamartme's History of the 
Girondists. 



576 



Modern History. 



week afterward (January 21, 1793). Among those who voted 
for the king's condemnation was the infamous Duke of Or- 
leans, who took part in the popular excesses, abandoning his 
title and taking the name of Philip E-gal'i-te {equality). 

68. The Mountain Party having triumphed in the Con- 
vention, the Girondist leaders were guillotined, and with them 
the celebrated Madame Roland. The Reign of 
Terror was then inaugurated, during which the 



Reign of Terror. 



Kevolutionary Tribunal, controlled by Robespierre, Danton, 

and others, caused thousands to 
be seized and hurried to the guil- 
M^i^mi^mf^'- \ lotine.* Among these victims 

/ mSKM^m ^k \ was the unfortunate Marie An- 

toinette (October, 1793), who, 
during her imprisonment, had 
/ been subjected to every indignity 
and insult which could be de- 
vised by her relentless jailers. 
Similar deeds of cruelty were 
perpetrated in other parts of 
France, the number guillotined 
being estimated at more than 18,000. With scarcely an ex- 
ception, the prominent actors in these atrocities, one after 
another, met with a violent death. Marat was assassinated by 
Charlotte Corday; and Robespierre's faction, obtaining the 
ascendency, sent Danton and his adherents to the guillotine. 




Madamk Roland. 



* " Night and day the cars incessantly discharged victims into the prison; weep- 
ing mothers and trembhng orphans were thrust in without mercy with the brave 
and the powerful; the young, the beautiful, the unfortunate, seemed in a peculiar 
manner the prey of the assassins. Nor were the means of evacuating the prisons 
augmented in a less fearful progression. Fifteen only were at first placed on the 
chariot, but their number was soon augmented to thirty, and gradually rose to 
eighty persons who daily were sent forth to the place of execution ; when the fall 
of Robespierre put a stop to the murders, arrangements had been made for 
increasing it to one hundred and fifty. An immense aqueduct, to remove the gore, 
had been dug as far as the Place St. Antoine (plahs sang ahn-tirahn); and four men 
were daily employed in emptying the blood of the victims into that reservoir."— 
Alison's History of Europe. 



France, 577 



A few months later, the Eeign of Terror was closed by the 
execution of Robespierre himself (1794).* 

The Disectory. 

69. A new constitution was then adopted by the Conven- 
tion, the executive authority being intrusted to a Directory, 
consisting of live members. This constitution being opposed 
by several of the Parisian Sections (divisions of the city), who 
threatened an insurrection, Napoleon Bonaparte, 
a young officer, who had previously distinguished 
himself at the siege of Tou-lon', was selected to 



Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 



conduct the military operations against the insurgents. Plant- 
ing his cannon adroitly, he opened fire upon the populace, 
and dispersed them without difficulty (1795). 

70. The service rendered by Napoleon on the ^'Day of 
the Sections," was soon afterward rewarded by conferring 
upon him the command of the Army of Italy, designed 
to operate against the Austrians (1796). In two 
campaigns he achieved a succession of the most 



Austri 



an war. 



brilliant victories over the Austrian armies; and entering the 
Venetian territory, in consequence of hostilities committed 
against the French, he captured Venice itself, and overturned 
her ancient government (1797). The Austrian emperor was 
at length compelled to assent to the terms of the treaty of 
Cam'po For'-mi-o, by which an independent commonwealth 
was established in northern Italy, called the Cisalpine Repub- 
lic, but the city of Venice was ceded to Austria. 

71. Bonaparte, after considerable persuasion, induced the 
Directory to consent to an expedition designed to conquer 

* " T\Tien Robespierre ascended the fatal car, his head was enveloped in a bloody 
cloth, his color was livid, and his eyes sunk. When the procession came opposite 
his house, it stopped, and a group of women danced round the bier of him whose 
chariot- wheels thej' would have dragged, the day before, over a thousand victims. 
Robespierre mounted the scaffold last, and the moment his head fell, the applause 
was tremendous. In some cases the event was announced to the prisoners by 
the waving of handkerchiefs from the tops of houses."— Ha^Zii^s i^>e)ic7i i^ewit*- 
tion. 



578 Modern History, 



Egypt^ as a means of attacking the commerce and power of 
England in the East. Landing there with an 
immense army, he captnred Alexandria, and then 
marched toward Cairo {ki'ro), which, after de- 



Expedition to 

Egypt. 



feating the Mam'e-lukes in the noted Battle of the Pyra- 
mids, he entered (1798). This gave him possession of the 
country; but a few days afterward. Nelson destroyed his 
fleet, in the memorable Battle of the Nile, and thus cut oil 
the retreat of the invaders. 

72. The Turkish Empire having declared war against 
France, Bonaparte at once invaded Syria, captured Jaffa by 
assault, and cruelly caused twelve hundred Turk- 
ish prisoners to be put to death. He then laid 



Other events. 



siege to Acre {a' her), but failed to capture it; although he de- 
feated the Turks with great slaughter at Mount Tabor. Return- 
ing to Egypt, he attacked and almost annihilated a considei'able 
army of Turks at Aboukir {ah-lwo-heer'), General Murat (imi- 
rali'), at the head of the French cavalry, particularly distin- 
guishing himself in this obstinate battle (1799). Leaving his 
army with General Kleber (kla-hare'), he then returned to 
France, and was received with unbounded enthusiasm by the 

people. 

The Consulate and Empire. 

73. Meanwhile, a new conlition of the great powers of 
Europe had been formed against France, and the Russians 
under Su-var'otf had gained several important 
victories in Italy. This made the Directory very 
unpopular, and Bonaparte took the opportunity 



Russian 
successes. 



of overturning the government at the point of the bayonet. 

A new constitution was then formed, and accepted by the 
people, according to which the executive power 
was vested in three Consuls, elected for ten years. 



Revolution. 



Bonaparte was appointed First Consul (1799), and by his 
vigor and address introduced reforms in every department 
of the government. 



France, 



579 



74. The military operations were conducted with splendid 
ability and success. The Austrians were defeated by General 
Moreau (mo-ro') in the battle of Ho-hen-lin'- 
den; while Napoleon himself gained new laurels 
by his daring passage of the Alps, and by his 



Military 
operations. 



brilliant victory over the Austrians at Ma-ren'go (1800). This 
compelled the emperor of Austria to conclude the Treaty of 



Lune'ville (1801), which was 
Amiens, in which peace was 




followed by the Treaty of 
made with England (1802). 
Bonaparte was next elected 
Consul for Life, 
and, various con- 



Consul for Life. 



Napoleon I. 



Moreau. 



spiraces being formed against 
him, he determined still fur- 
ther to augment and perj^et- 
uate his power, and caused 
himself to be declared by the 
legislature Emper(Tr of the 
French (1804). 

75. A short time after this, 
Moreau was banished for be- 
ing concerned in 
a conspiracy against the government, and eleven 
of the other conspirators were put to death. Napoleon re- 
ceived the crown of France from the hands of the Pope; and 
subsequently, at Milan, caused himself to be 
crowned King of Italy, with tlie famous ^^iron 
crown" of the Lombards (1805). These assumptions of 
power led to another coalition against him, on the part of 
England, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Prussia; 
but Napoleon, Avith his accustomed promptitude, 
marched against the Austrians, and succeeded in 
capturing a large army at Ulm (1805). This was soon fol- 
lowed by the decisive battle of Aus'ler-litz,* in which tlie 

* For the location of these places, see Map No. XVII. and Map No. XIX. 



King of Italy. 



Napoleon's 
victories. 



580 Modern History. 



combined armies of the Austrians and Eussians were routed 
with overwhelming loss. The emperors of France, Austria, 
and Russia were present at this battle, and the conditions of 
peace were at once agreed upon. The treaty was afterward 
formally concluded at Presburg, Austria making great sacri- 
fices of territory. 

76. Napoleon now took possession of Naples, and con- 
ferred the crown upon his brother Joseph. His brother 
Louis was made king of Holland; and various 
principalities and duchies were bestowed upon 



Naples. 



his most eminent generals and ministers. He next formed a 
union of several states of Germany, which was styled the Con- 
federation of the Rhine, and placed under his 
own control. This was virtually a dissolution of 
the Holy Roman Empire; and the emperor, ac- 



German 
Empire. 



cordingly, assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, relin- 
quishing that of ^'King of Germany and Emperor of the 
Romans," which had hitherto been borne by the German 
monarchs. (See page 431, note.) 

77. These encroachments and usurpations led to the Fourth 
Coalition, consisting of Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Brit- 
ain, and Sweden, against the French Empire. The 
Prussian monarch raised an imxmense army of 
150,000 men, and commenced hostilities; but Na- 



Fourth 
Coalition. 



poleon, with wonderfal skill and promptitude, attacked and 
utterly defeated the Prussians, in the sanguinary battle of 
Je'na (1806). So complete was the victory, that 
the kingdom of Prussia lay at the mercy of the 
victor, who a few weeks afterward entered Ber-lin' 



Defeat of 
Prussia. 



in triumph. There he issued his celebrated decree, declaring 
the British Isles in a state of blockade, and forbidding all 
commercial intercourse, on the part of any nation, with Great 
Britain or her colonies. 

78. During the winter, he attacked the Russians at Eylau 
(i'lou)', but his army was repulsed with tremendous slaughter 



France. 



581 



(February, 1807). Six months later, with an army of 200,000 

men, he gained a victory over tlie Russians at 

Fried'hmd; and thus was enabled to dictate terms 

of peace to the Russian emperor Alexander at 

Til'sit. Peace was also made with Prussia, on condition 

that she should give up the territory between the 

Rhine and Elbe rivers, which Napoleon bestowed 



Defeat of 
Russia. 



Peace. 



on his youngest brother Jerome, with the title of King of 
Westphalia (1807). 

79. The commercial restrictions imposed by Napoleon 
upon the different countries of Europe, as declared in the 
Berlin decree (called the Continental System), 
were not fully obeyed by Portugal, into which 



Portugal. 



country British merchandise was freely admitted, and thence 
was transported into Spain. 
Napoleon, therefore, ordered 
General Junot {zhoo-no') to in- 
vade Portugal and take posses- 
sion of Lisbon; and the prince 
regent was compelled to seek 
refuge with the British fleet in 
the Tagus, whence he sailed to 
Brazil, and fixed the seat of his 
government in that country. 
Portugal was then declared a 
province of the French Empire. 
Napoleon next determined to take possession of Spain; and, 
after compelling its lawful king to resign the 
crown, he conferred it upon his brother Joseph 




MURAT. 



Spam. 



Bonaparte, whom he had transferred from the throne of 
Naples. The latter throne he conferred on Murat, who had 
married his sister (1808). 

80. The people of Portugal and Spain were aroused to in- 
surrection by these arbitrary measures, and the British Govern- 
ment resolved to aid them in their efforts to expel the mvaders. 



682 Modern History. 



The Peuiiisiilar War followed, which lasted nearly five years, 
and in which Wellington gained those resplendent 
victories which have already been referred to in 



Peninsular War 



the history of England. Meanwhile, hostilities were again 
resumed on the part of Austria, with armies which amounted, 
in the aggregate, to about 500,000 men. Napoleon, notwith- 
standing his inferior forces, defeated the Aus- 
trians, under the Archduke Charles, at Eck'- 
muhl (1809), but was compelled to fall back 



Austrian 
defeats. 



from his position after the bloody battle of As'pern. Soon 
afterward, he gained a decisive victory at Wagram (wah'- 
gram); after which the Austrian emperor was obliged to sub- 
mit to terms of peace dictated by the victor (1.809). 

81. While these events were in progress, the Pope (Pius 
VII. ), continuing his opposition to Napoleon, finally excom- 
municated him. The latter retaliated by annex- 
ing Rome to the French Empire, and causing the 



Pope. 



Pope to be imprisoned in France. This was because of the 
Pope's refusal to concur in the Continental System, and to 
recognize Murat as king of Naples.* Having divorced his 
faithful and virtuous wife Josephine, he next haughtily de- 
manded the Austrian princess Maria Louisa in 
marriage; and so thoroughly had the Emperor 
Francis been subdued at Wagram, that he was 



Marriage of 
Napoleon. 



compelled to give his assent; and the nuptials, accordingly, 
took place a short time afterward (1810). In order the more 
effectually to carry out his policy of commercial prohibition, 
he, in the same year, seized the Hanse towns, 
Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck, and annexed the 



Hanse towns. 



northern coast of Germany to the French Empire. 



* The unbounded arrogance of Napoleon is shown in the following: " Your high- 
ness is sovereign of Rome, but I am its emperor. All my enemies must be yours. 
It is not fit that any agent of the king of Sardinia, any Englishman. Russian, or 
Swede, should reside at Rome, or in your states, or that any vessel of those powers 
should enter your ports.''— Napoleon to Pius VII. (Feb. 22, 1806). 



France. 583 



82. Difficulties having arisen with Sweden and Russia, in 
consequence of the French emperor's arbitrary demands in the^ 
carrying out of the Continental System, the latter determined 
to invade Russia with an overwhelming force. 
Accordingly, in June,1812, he set out with asplen- 



Russian war. 



Burning of 
Moscow. 



didly equipped army of nearly 500,000 men, crossed the Nie- 
men, and directed his march to Mos'cow, the ancient capital 
of the Russian Empire. Arriving at Smo-lensk', he captured 
the city after a tremendous conflict, which closed with the 
retreat of the Russians. About two weeks after this, he 
fought a desperate battle with the Russian army at Bor-o- 
di'no {% like e); but although 45,000 of the enemy were either 
killed or wounded, he failed to destroy their army, and gained 
no decisive victory. His own losses in these engagements 
were immense (September 7). 

83. Unable to defend Moscow, the Russians abandoned it, 
and the French entered it in triumph ten days after the bat- 
tle of Borodino. But the city had been set on 
fire by the Russians, and the French vainly at- 
tempted to stop the conflagration. Nine-tenths 
of the whole city became a prey to the flames. This discon- 
certed the plans of Napoleon, who had designed to pass the 
winter at Moscow; and as the Russians were menacing his 
communications with Smolensk, where his magazines and re- 
serves had been left, he determined to retreat (October 19). 

84. But the dreadful Russian winter having commenced, 
the French soldiers perished by thousands of cold and 
famine. To add to their suiferings, they were 
constantly harassed by the Russian army, par- 
ticularly by the Cossack cavalry, being in almost 
constant conflict with them, until they reached the Ber-e- 
si'na River, where their passage was disputed by the Rus- 
sians in strong force. The loss of life was frightful. Multi- 
tudes fell by the sabres of tlie Russians, but still larger 
numbers perished in the icy waters of the river; so that when 



Retreat of the 
arnny. 



584 Modern History. 



the crossing was effected only 20,000 men remained to Na- 
poleon of the magnificent army with which he had set out. 
During those terrific scenes and conflicts. Mar- 
shal Ney {lid) gained the appellation of the 



Ney. 



"Bravest of the Brave," by his fortitude and heroic conduct. 

85. After the dreadful passage of the Beresina, Napoleon 

abandoned the army, and fled in disguise to Paris, where his 

arrival restored public confidence and courage; 

and such were his extraordinary energy and the 



Continued war 



resources of tlie French nation, that, in the beginning of the 
next year (1813), he was enabled to resume operations with 
an army of 350,000 men, exclusive of his forces in Spain. 
Europe was once more allied against him; but, on the famous 
battle-ground of Lut'zen, he defeated the army of the allies, 
and triumphantly entered the city of Dresden. Two other 
battles were fought with indecisive results, after which he 
consented to an armistice. 

86. But operations were soon resumed by the allies with 
an immense army; and they attacked the French at Dresden, 
but were repulsed with severe loss. Moreau, 
fighting on the side of the allies, was here mor- 



Dresden. 



tally wounded (July 26). In October, the allies, with large 
reinforcements, threatened Isra2:)oleon's communications, and 
compelled his retreat to Leip'sic, where the great- 
est conflict of the war ensued, the allied army 



Leipsic. 



amounting to about 250,000 men; while that of Napoleon 
contained less than 150,000. This has been called the Battle of 
the Nations. After a desperate struggle, which lasted three 
days, the French were compelled to retreat; and Napoleon's 
great conquests were at once lost. Against the overwhelm- 
ing forces of the allies. Napoleon could make no 
effectual resistance. Having defeated every army 



Paris taken. 



sent to impede their progress, they at last penetrated into 
France, and Paris was finally obliged to capitulate (March 31, 
1814). 



France, 585 



Restoration of the Bourbons. 

87. After the capitulation of Paris, a provisional govern- 
ment was established under Talleyrand, by which the de- 
thronement of Napoleon was decreed, and the 
brother of Louis XYI. was placed on the throne 



Louis XVlll. 



with the title of Louis XVIIL, the dauphin Louis XVII. 
having died in the Temple, in Paris. Thus the Bourbon 
family was restored (May 3, 1814). In the mean time, Napo- 
leon, finding himself deserted by many of his most trusted 
generals, accepted the terms offered him by the allies, abdi- 
cating the throne and retiring to the island of 
Elba, near the western coast of Italy, the place 
appointed for his residence. The dismemberment 



Napoleon an 
exile. 



of the empire then followed, France being reduced to the 
limits which it had in 1792. Louis pretended to grant a con- 
stitutional charter, but, like a genuine Bourbon, he reserved 
the right to alter its provisions according to his own pleasure. 
88. The next year, while a congress of the European 
powers was assembled at Vienna, to arrange and settle the 
affairs of Europe, they were suddenly surprised 
by the escape of Napoleon from Elba. Landing 
on the southern shore of France (at Cannes 



Escape from 
Elba. 



[^Yi/^]), he was at once received with enthusiasm by the 
troops; and Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his 
progress, having deserted to him, he once more entered Paris 
in triumph, and was greeted with acclamations of joy by all 
classes (March 20, 1815). Louis XVIII. having fled. Napo- 
leon found himself again on the throne of France; and in less 
than two months, an army was organized of over 200,000 
men, exclusive of the National Guards. 

89. Meantime, the allies had prepared for the impending 
conflict. Three vast armies were collected; the first consist- 
ing of Austrians, under Prince Schwartz'en-berg; the second, 
of British, Germans, and Prussians, under Wellington and 



^S^ Modern History. 



Blu'cher {bloo'her)\ and the third, of Kussians, under the 
Eni2)eror Alexander. Operations commenced on the 15th of 
June; and, on the 18th, was fought the memor- 
able battle of Wa'ter-loo, in which the allies under 



Waterloo. 



Wellington repulsed the French, and drove them into irre- 
trievable retreat and ruin. Napoleon fled to Paris; but find- 
ing that no further effort could be made to retrieve his ruined 
fortunes, he proceeded to the coast, where he surrendered him- 
self to the commander of a British vessel of war. By agree- 
ment of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a captive to the 
little island of St. He-le'na, where he arrived in 
October, 1815, and where he continued to reside 
as a prisoner until his death, in 1821, at the age 



Final 
banishment. 



of fifty-two years. Such was the termination of this extraor- 
dinary career of ambition and conquest — the most extraor- 
dinary perhaps in the world's annals.* 

90. Louis XVIII. Soon after the battle of Waterloo, 
Paris was entered by the allies, and the greater part of the 

French territory was occupied by foreign armies. 

Louis XVIII. was restored, and Marslial Ney, 



Chief events. 



who had deserted to Napoleon, was shot as a traitor. The 
same year Murat, having made a rash attempt to regain the 
throne of Naples, was seized and put to death. The measures 
of the restored Bourbon dynasties of Spain and Italy had 
been so tyrannical, that insurrections broke out in those coun- 
tries. In Spain, the army, under General O'Donnell, sup- 
ported the liberal constitution, and Ferdinand, 
the king, was obliged to submit. Louis XVIII. 



sent an army into Spain to restore the supreme authority to 

* In person, Napoleon was below the medium height, and, during his early 
years, was slenderly built; being thin, at times, to emaciation. His head was dis- 
proportionately large, with features classically molded, an olive complexion, and 
large, dark eyes. He was habitually abstracted, seeming to commune with him- 
self even when listening to others; yet his conversation was engaging, from the 
vigor and clearness of his thought, and the condensed precision of his language. 

In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from St. Helena to Paris, and there 
entombed with every possible circumstance of splendor and solemnity. 



France. . 587 



Ferdinand; and the constitutionalists having been defeated, 
the liberal government was overturned (1823). Louis XVIII. 
died the next year (182-i), and was succeeded by his brother 
Charles, Count of Artois {ar'Pwah), 

91. Charles X. During this reign, the contests between 
the ultra-royalist and liberal parties in the Chamber of 
Deputies, as the legislature was called, became 
very violent; and Charles, taking sides with the 



Chief events. 



former, adopted very arbitrary measures to enforce his views. 
The liberal party having secured a majority in the Chamber, 
the king caused the latter to be dissolved, altered the law of 
elections, and suspended the liberty of the press. In conse- 
quence of these despotic measures, the peo})le rose in insur- 
rection; and, after a contest of three days, dis- 
persed the royal guards and sacked the Tuileries. 



Insurrection. 



Lafayette was then appointed general of the National Guards, 
and the Chamber of Deputies having declared the throne 
vacant, summoned Lou'is Phil'ipi)e (or loo'e fil-leej)') to oc- 
cupy it (1830). Charles took refuge in England. 

92. Louis Philippe was the son of the infamous Duke of 
Orleans, who, under the assumed name of Philip Egalite, 
had taken part in the excesses of the revolution, and had 
become one of its many victims. Since that dreadful period, 
Louis Philippe had suffered every variety of for- 
tune, being an exile from his native land, and in 



Previous life. 



a condition of privation and distress traveling or sojourning 
in foreign countries. A charter of rights was agreed upon 
by the Chamber of Deputies, and accepted by the newly 
elected king. His reign was for several years 
quite prosperous; and the country advanced in 



Chief events. 



education, commerce, and internal improvements. The 
king, however, was very odious to the extreme republi- 
cans, and several attempts were made upon his life. He 
afterward became generally unpopular by his opposition to 
the reforms which were demanded in the government, as well 



588 Modern History. 



as by his avarice and his selfish concern for the aggrandize- 
ment of his family. 

93. An attempt to repress, by arbitrary prohibition, a re- 
form banquet appointed on Washington's birthday (February 
22, 1848), excited an insurrection of the people, 
with whom the troops fraternized; and Louis 



Revolution. 



Philippe was com^^elled to flee. With much difficulty, he 
made his escape to England, where he died about two years 
afterward. One of the most important events of this reign 
was the conquest of Algiers (1847), after a long and sanguin- 
ary struggle on the part of the native tribes, under their 
leader Abd-el Ka'der (1847). It was annexed to France as a 
provmce under the name of Algeria. 

The Second Republic. 

94. After the flight of the king, a provisional government 
was instituted, consisting of seven members, among whom 
were La-mar-tine'(-/ee7^) and Ar'a-go, distinguished 
for their attainments in literature and science. 
France was declared a republic, with the motto. 



Provisional 
government. 



^'Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity;" hereditary titles and 
distinctions of nobility were abolished, and a national assem- 
bly was called for the purpose of framing a constitution. 
The constitution afterward adopted vested tlie government 
in a president, to be elected for four years, and 
a national assembly. By the election which fol- 



President. 



lowed, Louis Napoleon was chosen, by an immense majority, 
first president of France (1848).* 

95. In tlie first year of his presidency, a revolution broke 
out m Rome, and the Pope (Pius IX.) fled to Gaeta gah-a'- 

* Louis Napoleon was the nephew of the great Napoleon, being the son of Louis 
Bonaparte and Hortense Beauhamais, daughter of the Empress Josephine. During 
the reign of Louis Philippe, he became noted for two attempts to obtain possession 
of the government by endeavoring to raise a revolt in his favor among the troops. 
One of these was at Strasburg, in 1836, and the other at Boulogne, in 1840. For the 
second he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, but succeeded in making 
his escape in 1846. These rash enterprises subjected him to considerable ridicule. 



France. 589 



tall). Louis Napoleon liaving sent an army under General 
Oudinot {oo'de-7io) to restore him to his government, the re- 
publicans under Gar-i-bal'di were entirely defeated, 
and Pius IX. returned to Kome the next year. 



Eevolutions broke out in other parts of Italy, with similar 
want of success. Difficulties arising between the President 
and the Assembly, the former determined to overturn the ex- 
isting form of government, so as to obtain an increase of 
power. His measures were devised and executed with great 

adroitness. Having gained over the military, he i 

seized and imprisoned such of the members of ^X'n^e^"* 
the Assembly as were hostile to his views, as well I 



as other distinguished citizens from whom he apprehended 
opposition. He then suppressed the newspapers, and pro- 
claimed a dissolution of the Assembly and Council of State 
(December, 1851). 

96. A despotic constitution sketched by Louis Napoleon 
was accepted by the people, and he was elected president for 
a term of ten years. A short time after this, he 
obtained the passage of a decree by the Senate, 



Revolution, 



declaring him hereditary emperor; and this decree was rati- 
fied by the popular suffrages. Napoleon Bonaparte's son by 
Maria Louisa (Napoleon II.) having died, Louis Napoleon 
assumed the title of Napoleon III. Thus was effected one of 
the most disgraceful usurpations recorded in history, by means 
of a dishonorable stratagem which was dignified by the name 
of coup cfetat {hoo-de-tah') — i.e., stroke of state policy. 

The Second Empire. 
97. In 1854 the French united with the English in the 
Russian War, and under Marshal Pelissier (pa-Us-se-cc') ac- 
quired the glory of the final storming of the 
tremendous fortresses of Sebastopol. In 1859, war 



Russian War. 



having arisen between Austria and Sardinia, the French 
emperor formed an alliance with the latter, and took the 



590 Modern History. 



field in person in northern Italy. Austria suffered disas- 
trous defeats at Ma-gen'ta and Sol-fer-i'no {i 
:ke e), and by the treaty of Vil'lafran'ca was 



obliged to relinquish possession of Lombardy. -In 1862 a 
French army occupied Mexico; and, on the invitation of 
Napoleon, Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, took 
the throne as emperor of that country. His 



government was, however, soon overturned^ and he himself 
was shot by order of tlie insurgent general (18G7). 

98. The preservation of the papal power in Italy from the 
attacks of Garibaldi and his republican associates was a strik- 
ing feature of the emperor's policy, which in its 
general character was strongly on the side of 
absolutism as opposed to the spread of liberal 



Policy of 
Napoleon. 



princij^les and the establishment of democratic governments. 
Under his sway, France, though kept under severe restraint 
by the imperial power, made great and rapid strides in every 
department of national well-being; and her internal improve- 
ments and progress in commerce and manufactures were 
unsurpassed by those of any other nation. 

99. In 1870 war was declared by France against Ger- 
many; and the Frencli armies, under Marshals McMahon 
and Bazaine, marched to the Rhine. But the 
German states, with perfect unanimity, joined 



German War. 



all their forces under King William of Prussia, to repel the 
invaders; and immense armies, splendid in discipline and 
equipment, were promptly concentrated near the east bank 
of the Ehine, under the Prussian monarch, aided by Von 
Moltke and other generals. In the first conflicts, McMahon 
was defeated and driven into retreat; but he took 
up a strong position at Sedan (sa-dong'). Here 
was fought a great and decisive battle, on the 1st 



French 
disasters. 



of September; and the French, driven from their position 
and completely surrounded, were compelled to surrender. 
More than 80,000 men laid down their arms, and Napoleon 



France. 591 



himself became a prisoner. While a part of the German army 
marched on Paris, and invested that city, Bazaine was shut up 
in Metz, where, on the 21st of October, he surrendered his 
army prisoners of war. 

Third Republic. 

100. Paris held out until January 28, 1871, when it 
yielded, and was occupied by the German forces. Mean- 
while, Napoleon being a prisoner, the French 
Republic had been declared, and Thiers was 



Republic. 



elected president. A treaty was then concluded, by which 
France ceded to Germany the greater part of Alsace and Lor- 
raine, and agreed to pay an immense sum of money as an 
indemnity for the war. Soon afterward an insurrection broke 
out in Paris, supported by the Commune, which 
lasted several months, during which the insur- 



Cor 



gents committed many acts of atrocity and violence. It was 
put down in May, 1871. On this, finding it impossible to 
reconcile the hostile factions, Thiers resigned (May, 1873); 
and Marshal McMahon was elected president in his stead. 
The death of Napoleon occurred in England (1873). 

101. During the same year, occurred also the trial of 
Marshal Bazaine, upon charges based on his surrender of 
the army at Metz. It resulted in his conviction, 
and he was sentenced to degradation from his rank 



Chief events. 



as general, and death. But he was recommended to mercy 
by his judges, and President McMahon commuted the sentence 
of death to twenty years' seclusion. In 1873, the German oc- 
cupation of French territory ceased, the last installment of the 
war indemnity having been paid. There were many parties 
at this time among the French people opposed to the repub- 
lic, causing much political agitation. The triumph of the 
republicans in 1879, was soon followed by the resignation of 
President McMahon; and he was succeeded by M, Grevy, who 
is still in office (1882). 



592 Modern History. 



State of Society in France, 

During the Bevolutionary Period (1774-1881). 

102. At the time of tlie accession of Louis XVI. there 
were many indications of an impending revolution. New ideas 
had been infused into the minds of men, which 
produced an opposition to prevailing institutions; 



Signsof change. 



and the wrongs which the people had suffered for centuries 
from the rule of an arbitrary monarchy, and from a corrupt 
court and nobility, began to be more clearly seen and more 
deeply felt. There were many influences that conspired to 
fan the smouldering fire into a flame. 

103. The French Revolution has been attributed to the 
following causes; 1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy 
of the French court during the three preceding 
reigns; 2. The unjust laws that favored the 
nobility and clergy at the expense of the lower 



Causes of 
the Revolution. 



classes; 3. The diffusion of knowledge and tlie spread of in- 
fidelity caused by the writings of Voltaire and others;" 4. The 
desire for political freedom inspired by the success of the 
American Revolution, in which so many of the French had 
borne a prominent part. To these must be added the dis- 
order of the finances, which, in the first part of the reign of 
Louis XVI., almost stopped the wheels of government. 

104. The people — the Third Estate — had bided their time, 
and at last it came. The first session of the far-famed States- 
General of 1789 gave, in various minor incidents, 
indications of the storm that was so soon to burst 
forth with resistless fury. The representatives 



Course of the 
people. 



of the people refused to sit with uncovered heads, when the 
nobles and clergy, according to the old custom of every 
former session, put on their hats after the completion of the 
king's speech; and this led to a tumult only to be ended by 
the king's taking off his own hat. Since that great era, revo- 



France, 593 



lution has been the characteristic of French politics. No 
government that has been established has been other than 
insecure and temporary, because it has not rested on princi- 
ples thoroughly fixed in public opinion. The popular mind, 
indeed, has seemed to revolt from all government, only sub- 
mitting to it for a time as a necessity. The Commune of 
1871 was the last, but perhaps the most striking, illustration 
of this fact. 

105. In the first part of the reign of Louis XVI., when 
Dr. Franklin visited France in 1776, in behalf of his Ameri- 
can compatriots, the people were charmed with 
his simplicity of dress and manners; and their 



Costume. 



love for the cause which he represented led them to imitate 
him. Gold lace and embroidery and powdered curls gave 
way to plain dresses and straight-cut hair; but this was soon 
followed by an extraordinary affectation of English modes of 
costume. At the beginning of this period, the ladies wore 
hoops, and dressed their hair in the most extreme fashion. 
It was drawn up in the form of a huge pyramid on the top of 
the head; and caricatures might be seen representing the 
hair-dresser mounted on a ladder dressing a lady's hair. This 
extravagance was succeeded, for a time, by a period of great 
simplicity in dress, white muslin dresses and straw hats taking 
the place of silks, satins, and velvets. The antique then 
came into vogue in imitation of the classic heroes of Greece 
and Rome. In more modern times the world of fashion has 
constantly had its center at Paris. 

106. The civil administration of the great Napoleon was 
characterized by the highest intelligence and the most benefi- 
cent enterprise. The Code Napoleon, a compila- 
tion of the laws of France, prepared under his 
direction, was perhaps the greatest of all his 



France under 
Napoleon. 



achievements for the good of France. He did much also for 
education, of which no system existed in France before his 
time. He created numerous lyceums, in which the instruc- 



594 Modern History. 



tion given was literary, scientific, and moral; and several law 
and medical schools. The system of primary instruction in 
France, now so complete, was created subsequent to Napo- 
leon's time. 

107. The public works, including magnificent buildings, 
public monuments, roads, etc., are far too many to enumerate. 
Among them may be mentioned the great break- 
water at tlie harbor of Cherbourg, which was 



Public works. 



commenced in 1783, but not finished till 1853. During the 
present century, France has shared, in common with other 
civilized nations, that astonishing progress in science and in 
the useful arts which have done so much to ad- 
vance the interests of mankind by improving the 



Science and art. 



condition of society. The railroad,* the steamship, and the tele- 
graph, have revolutionized the social, political, and military 
system of every civilized nation in the world; and in none has 
there been greater progress in the use of these than in France. 
The AVorld's Fair [^Exposition Universelle) has been an im- 
portant auxiliary in developing the industrial and artistic 
capabilities of this great nation.* 

108. Every department of literature is adorned with the 
products of French genius. In tlie early part of 
this period, the following writers may be enume- 



Literature. 



rated : 

Crebillon {kre-he-yovg') (1674^1762), a tragic poet, ranking next to Cor- 

iicille and Racine. 
Volney (1757-1793), eminent for his historical researches. 
Malesherbes (1721-1794), an able statesman, and writer on politics, law, 

and finance; autlior of Thouglits and Maxims. 
Andre Chenier {shen-ya') 1762-1794), the poet of the Revolution, wliose 

career was cut short by the guillotine. 
Beaumarcliais {bo-mar- sha') (1732-1799), who wrote The Marriage of 

Figaro and The Barber of Seville, two famous comedies. 



* The idea of the Exposition Universelle originated in France, but was first 
realized in England. In the Paris Exposition of 1867, as well as in 1878, there was 
presented in an eminent degi-ee the wonderful creative skill of the French people. 



France, 



bdb 



Bernardin St. Pieire (1737-1814), author of the popular story Paul and 
Virginia. 

109. At a later period, the following writers have been 
most conspicuous: 

De Stael (stahl) (Mme.) (1766-1817), the most talented woman of her 
time, who wrote Corinne, and other works of £:;enius. 



De Genlis {zJiongle) (Mme.) (1746-1830), author of many Later period. 

interesting juvenile works, romances, memoirs, etc. 

Of the latter, her Observations on the Literary History of the Nine- 
teenth Century possesses the greatest interest. 

Sismondi (1773-1842), author of the History of the Italian RepiiUics. 

Chateaubriand {shah-to-bre-ahng') (1769-1848), author of the Genius of 
Christianity, a work remarkable for 
its purity and finished style. 

Beranger {he-rahn-zha') (1780-1857), the 
greatest of French lyric poets, 
noted for his popular songs. 

Guizot (1787-1874), one of the most il- 
lustrious of French statesmen and 
historians; author of the History of 
Gimlization, and other works. 

Thierry {te-d'ree), author of the History 
of tlie Norman Conquest, and other 
historical works. 

Comte {kongt) (1798-1857), author of 
the Positive Philosophy. 

Thiers (1797-1877), author of many valuable historical works. History of 
the French Revolution, Consulate and Empire, etc. 

Michelet {meesh-la) (1798-1874), author of the History of Finance, and 
many other noted wcrks. 

Cousin {koo zahng) (1792-1867), a noted philosopher. 

Victor Hugo (born 1802), the most celebrated French writer of modern 
times, — poet, dramatist, historian, philosopher, and moralist; remark- 
able for the splendor as well as the universality of his genius. 

Alexander Dumas {du-mah) (1803-1870), one of the most prolific of novel- 
ists. 

Ernest Renan {re-nahng) (born 1823), author of the Life of Jesus, Saint 
Paul, etc. 

Flammarion (born 1842), an astronomer and popular writer, author of 
Plurality of Worlds, God in Nature, etc. 




Victor Hugo. 



596 - Modern History. 



Rulers of France, 

During the Revolutionary Period, 



Name. Date of rule. 

Louis XVI., Bourbon king 1774^1793 

Reign of Terror 1793-1794 

Directory 1794-1799 

Napoleon, First Consul 1800-1804 

Napoleon I., Emperor 1804-1814 

Louis XVIII., Bourbon king. . . 1814-1824 
Charles X., Bourbon king 1824-1830 



Name. Date of rule. 

L. Philippe, Bourbon-Orleans.. 1830-1848 

Louis Napoleon, President 1848-1852 

Napoleon III., Emperor 1852-1870 

Thiers, L. A., President 1871-1873 

McMahon, M. E. P. M., Prest.. 1873-1879 
Grevy, F. J. P., President 1879- 



SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS AND DATES. 

A.D. 

Treaty of alUance with the United States 1778 

Meeting of the States-General. Revolution commenced 1789 

Meeting of the Legislative Assembly 1791 

The first French republic declared 1792 

Execution of Louis XVI. Reign of Terror 1793 

Execution of Robespierre 1794 

Napoleon's victorious campaign in northern Italy 1794-5 

Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Battle of the Pyramids 1798 

Napoleon's great victory over the Austrians at Marengo 1800 

Treaty of Amiens 1802 

Surrender of Ulm. Battle of Austerlitz. Battle of Trafalgar 1805 

Battles of Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin taken 1806 

Battle of Eylau. Peace of Tilsit 1807 

Taking of Vienna. Battles of Aspern and Wagram 1809 

Invasion of Russia by Napoleon. Moscow burned 1812 

Battles of Lutzen, Dresden, and Leipsic 1813 

Invasion of France. Capture of Paris. Abdication of Napoleon 1814 

Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon banished to St. Helena 1815 

Death of Napoleon at St. Helena 1821 

Taking of Algiers. Abdication of Charles X 1830 

Defeat of Abd-el-Kader. Conquest of Algeria 1847 

The great breakwater completed at Cherbourg 1853 

Rome taken by the French. The Pope restored 1849 

Termination of the Crimean war by the treaty of Paris 1856 

Battles of Solferino and Magenta 1859 

The city of Mexico entered by the French under Marshal Bazaine 1863 

The Archduke Maximilian declared Emperor of Mexico 1864 

War against Germany. McMahon and Bazaine defeated 1870 

Defeat of the Fi-ench at Sedan. Napoleon a prisoner, 1870 

Siege of Paris by the German army 1871 

Resignation of President Thiers. Death of Napoleon HI 1873 

Trial and condemnation of Marshal Bazaine 1873 

Death of Thiers 1877 

Resignation of President McMahon 1879 



Topical Remew. 



597 



Topical Eeview. 



EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Who were they? 

In what period did they live? 

With ivhat events connected? page 

Gonsalvo de Cordova 541 

Chevalier Bayard 542, 543, 544 

Gaston de Foix 542 

Constable Bourbon 543, 544, 545 

Catharine de' Medici.. 546, 548, 549, 551 

Constable Montmorency 547 

Prince of Cond6 547, 548, 549 

Admiral Coligni 547, 548 

Duke of Guise 547 

Chancellor de I'Hopital 548, 552 

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.).. 549, 553 

Duke of May enne 553 

Duke of Sully 554 

Mary de' Medici 555, 556 

Richeheu 555, 556, 565 

Cardinal Mazarin 557 

Marshal Turenne 557, 558 

Cardinal de Retz 557 

Colbert 558, 564 

Mme. de Maintenon 559, 567 

Cardinal Fleury 561, 562 

Marshal Saxe 562 

Napoleon 1 562, 577-586 

Marie Antoinette 571 

Mirabeau 572 

Necker 572 

Lafayette 573 

Robespierre 575, 576, 577 

Charlotte Corday . . 576 

Moreau 579 

Murat 582, 586 

Marshal Ney 583, 585, 586 

Napoleon III 588, 589, 590 

Marshal McMahon 590 

Corneille 567 

Racine 567 

Moli^re 567 

F6n61on 568 

Abbe de Fleury 568 

Diderot 569 

La Place 569 

Legendre 569 

Voltaire 569 



PAGE 

Montesquieu 569 

Rousseau 570 

Malsherbes 570, 594 

Madame Roland 576 

Madame de Stael 595 

Chateaubriand 595 

Guizot 595 

Thiers 591, 595 

Cousin 595 

Victor Hugo 595 

Ernest Renan 595 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

When did they occur? 

What led to them? 

What residted therefrom? 

League of Cambray 542 

Battle of Agnadello 542 

Battle of Marignano 543 

Battle of Pavia 544 

Sacking of Rome 545 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew 549 

Battle of Ivry 553 

Edict of Nantes 554, 560 

War of the Fronde 557 

Meeting of the States-General 571 

Storming of the Bastile 572 

Taking of the Tuileries 574 

Execution of Louis XVI 575 

Reign of Terror 576 

Treaty of Campo Formio 577 

Battle of the Pyramids 578 

Battle of AusterUtz 579 

Dissolution of the German Empire.. 580 

Battle of Jena 580 

Peace of Tilsit 581 

Battle of Wagram 582 

Russian Expedition 583, 584 

Battle of Leipsic 584 

Restoration of the Bourbons 585 

Battle of Waterloo 586 

Battle of Solferino 590 

Battle of Sedan 590 

Surrender of Bazaine 590 

Occupation of Paris 591 

Insurrection of the Commune 591 



CHAPTER XL 
States of Modern Europe. 



SECTION I. 
Germai^y a:n^d Austria. 



1. The modern history of Germany begins with the reign 
of Maximilian I. (1493-1519), called the Penniless, on account 
of his want of money to carry on his numerous 
wars. He was one of the group of prominent 



Contemporaries 



characters for whom that age was especially celebrated, — Pope 
Julius II., the founder of St. Peter's at Kome; Ferdinand of 
Aragon; Emanuel the Great of Portugal, the patron of arts 
and sciences and the friend of Vasco da Gama; Henry VIII. 
of England with his great minister. Cardinal 
Wolsey; and Bajazet II., one of the greatest of 



Luther. 



the Turkish sultans. It was in this reign that Martin Luther 
published his famous ninety-five theses against the doctrines 
of the Catholic Church (1517). 

2. Charles V., the grandson of Maximilian, who succeeded 
him (1519), being crowned at Aix-la Chapelle, was one of the 

greatest monarchs of ancient or modern times. 

He had become king of Spain by hereditary right, 



Dominions. 



previous to his election as emperor of Germany; and he was, 
besides, ruler over Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. His 



Geographical Study, Map No. XVIII. 
What was the situation of: The Roman Empire? Bohemia? Austria? Hungary? 
Ottoman Empire? Transylvania? Wallachia? Moldavia? Servia? Bulgaria? Bos- 
nia? Roumelia? Poland? Lithuania? Prussia? Brandknburg? Swiss Confedera- 
tion? Franche Comte? Naples? States op thi: Church? 



No. 18, 




Germany and Austria. 



m^ 



contests witli Francis I. of France have already been referred 
to. In 1521 a diet was held at AYorms, at which Luther 
having been cited by Charles was commanded to 
recant; and on his refusal was pronounced a her- 
etic, and put to the ban of the empire. He, however, escaped, 



and was kept concealed for nine months by his friend and 
protector, Frederick of Saxony. From the spread of Luther's 
tenets grew what is called the Reformation. 




Members of Maximilian's Court. 
(From a drawing by Albert Diirer, 1512.) 

3. The doctrines of the Reformation made great progress 
in Saxony, favored as they were by the Elector; and several of 
the other princes of Germany supported Luther's 
views. In the diet held at Spire (1526), a tem- 



Reformation. 



porary decree of toleration was granted the Lutherans; but 
a subsequent diet at the same place revoked the decree, and 
declared Lutheranism heretical (1529). Against this revoca- 
tion fifteen imperial cities, and seven reigning princes, in- 
cluding the Elector of Saxony, protested as being unjust and 



600 Modern History. 



oppressive; and hence the followers of Luther were after- 
ward called Protestants. At Augsburg they published their 
Confession of Faith, which had been drawn up by 
Melanchthon (1530),* and signed by the Protestant 



Protestants. 



p: Vices. The latter, after the condemnation of the Confession 

of Augsburg by the diet, formed for their defense the famous 

League of Smalcald (1531). 

4. Meantime, the Lutheran doctrines had spread rapidly 

through several of the German states, from Saxony north- 
ward to the Baltic. After the peace of Cambray 
(see page 257), the emperor engaged to extirpate 
Lutheranism; but he was compelled to unite the 



Growth of 
Protestantism 



German forces in order to repel the invasions of the Turks; 
and, consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg he made a treaty 
with the Protestant rulers, to be binding lyitil a general coun- 
cil of the Church should be called. After the Turks had been 
defeated and driven back, Charles, being kept busy by his war 
with the Barbary powers and with France, found himself still 
unable to cope with the Protestant leaders, and renewed the 
peace of Nuremberg. Thus Protestantism was unchecked for 
the time, and spread not only in Germany, but in Denmark, 
Sweden, Holland, England, and other countries. Luther in 
the mean time translated the Bible into the German language, 
and also composed many hymns, one of which became the 
battle-song of the Reformation. He is regarded as the found- 
er of German church poetry and music. 

5. A general council was at last called by Pope Paul IIL, 
to meet at Trent, f in the Italian part of the Tyrol, and 
the Protestants were invited to attend; but they refused to 

* Philip Melanchthon (born in 1497, died in 1560) was, next to Luther, the chief 
leader in the Protestant movement. He was eminent for his scholarship and intel- 
lectual ability, as well as for his modesty and gentleness of disposition. 

+ The Council of Trent was one of the most important synods of the Catholic 
Church. It was opened in December, 154.5, and was held at intervals until the 
twenty-fifth session, December, 1563. Its decrees, defining certain doctrines of the 
church, were confirmed by the Pope the next year. 



Germany) and Austria. 



601 



acknowledge the Pope's authority or to be bound by the de- 
crees of the Council. This brought on a religious war, and 
Charles V. marched into northern Germany, and 
defeated the Elector of Saxony at Miihlberg, on 
the Elbe, taking him prisoner (1547). The latter was com- 



Religious war. 




Maurice. 



pelled to give up most of his dominions to Maurice, so cele- 
brated subsequently as the champion of Protestantism, though 
now he played the part of an apostate. Luther died just 
before this war commenced (February 18, 15-4G).* 

6. Charles now eagerly pushed forward his plan to destroy 
Protestantism; and, under his orders, Maurice of Saxony laid 

siege to Magdeburg, 
and compelled its 
capitulation. Disgusted, how- 
ever, with the oppressive meas- 
ures of the emperor, Maurice 
now determined to take the side 
of the Protestants; and having 
formed an alliance with France 
(see page 258), he marched rap- 
idly to the south while Charles 
was busied in the affairs of the 
Council, and narrowly missed 
making him a prisoner (1552). f The next year, 
a vliet was held, and the assembled German 
princes agreed to the Treaty of Passau, made in 



Charles V. 



Treaty of 
Passau. 



1552 between Charles and Maurice, and permitting religious 



* " Charles V. was urged by the Duke of Alba and others to burn Luther's body 
and scatter the ashes, as those of a heretic ; but he answered like a man : ' I wage 
no war against the dead.' Herein he showed the better side of his nature, altnough 
only for a moment.'"— Bayard Taylor. 

t Apprised of his danger, Charles fled across the Alps amid the darkness of 
night and in a violent storm of rain, though he was suffering from the gout at the 
time, his courtiers following as best they could, many of them on foot. Maurice 
entered Innspruck a few hours after the emperor had left it; not sorry to find him 
gone, for he said he had "no convei^ient cage for such a falcon." The Council of 
Trent broke up, for the time, in dismay, its members scattering to their homes. 



602 Modern History. 

freedom to the Protestants. Three years afterward, tlie Diet 
of Augsburg, under the sanction of Charles V., confirmed 
these stipuktions, and thus gave peace to Germany (1555). 
Charles V. abdicated the throne in 1556, and was succeeded 
by his brother Ferdinand (1556-1564). 

Thirty Years' War. 

7. The next important event in the history of Germany 
is the Thirty Years' War, which commenced m 1618, in 
Bohemia, on account of the attempt of the king 
(Ferdinand XL) to extinguish Protestantism within 



Cause. 



his dominions. During this outbreak the king was elected 
emperor (Ferdinand II.); but the Bohemians refused to 
acknowledge him, and chose Frederick, Elector-palatine, son- 
in-law of James I. of England. Frederick being defeated in 
a great battle near Prague, was obliged to flee 
(1620); and the Bohemian Protestants were per- 



First period. 



secuted without mercy. Hostilities were continued. in other 
parts under Count Mansfield, Frederick's general, against 
Tilly,* the imperial general, until 1625, when several of the 
northern states of Germany formed a defensive union against 
the emperor, and invited Christian IV., King of Denmark, to 
act as their leader. This was the end of the first period of 
the war. 

8. Christian entered Germany with his forces, and was 
joined by Count Mansfield and Duke Christian of Bruns- 
wick, a noted character at that time. James I. 
of England, his brother-in-law, also sent him 



Second period. 



assistance. There was, however, no zealous union among tlie 
German states. At this time Albert Wallenstein, a wealthy 

* Tilly was already famous, in the Bavarian service, both for his military talent 
and his inhumanity. He was a small lean man, with a face almost comical in its 
ugliness. His nose was like a parrot's beak, his forehead seamed with deep 
wrinkles, his eyes sunk in their sockets and his cheek-bones projecting. He usually 
wore a dress of green satin, with a cocked hat and long red feather, and rode a 
small, mean-looking, gray horse."— Bayard Taylor. 



I 



Germany and Austria. 



603 



Bohemian, offered his services to Ferdinand in the Catholic 
interest, and they were accepted. Tilly and Wallenstein 
joining their forces soon drove the Danes out of Germany, 
and Christian made a treaty of peace with the emperor, at 
Lubeck (1629). This ended the second period of the war. 

9. The next year, partly through the intrigues of Riche- 
lieu, Wallenstein, the greatest of the imperial generals, was 
dismissed ; and Gustavus Adolphus, king of 
Sweden, was induced to enter the contest as the 



Third period. 



champion of the Protestant cause. With a small, but finely 
disciplined army, he invaded 
Germany, and passed triumph- 
antly through the country, after 
having defeated Tilly in a great 
battle near Leipsic (1G3I). Tilly 
being slain soon afterward, the 
emperor was obliged to recall 
Wallenstein, who by his skillful 
operations soon retrieved the 
imperial cause. In 1632 oc- 
curred the memorable battle of 
Lutzen, in which the Protes- 
tants triumphed, but with the loss of their great leader 
Gustavus (1632). Soon after this, Wallenstein, being accused 
of treason, was assassinated by the command, as is supposed, 
of the emperor (1634). This ended the third period of the 
war. 

10. Richelieu' now directly took jiart in the struggle on 
the side of the Protestants, allying France with Sweden, 
Holland, and the Protestant states of Germany 
against his implacable foe, the House of Austria 
(1635). During the remainder of the war, the 




Wallenstein. 



Intervention 
of France. 



imperial cause declined, through the influence of Richelieu's 
masterly diplomacy and energetic military operations. The 
Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, and was succeeded by 



604 Modern History. 



his son, Ferdinand III. Richelieu died m 1642; but the war 
lingered on six years longer. The peace of Westphalia estab- 
lished the religious independence of the Protestant states, 
made Holland and Switzerland free, increased the territories 
of France, and stripped the German Empire of very much of 
its ancient power and splendor (1648). 

11. The long reign of the emperor Leopold I. (1658-1705) 
was principally occupied m wars with the Turks and with 
~~ ~ I France. The former, in 1683, penetrated to the 

I heart of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, 

from which Lo'o-pold was compelled to flee. Through the 
courage and address of the celebrated Polish king, John 
So'bi-es-ki, the city was relieved, and the Turks were obliged 
to retreat to their own dominions. Germany was involved in 
the wars caused by the ambitious schemes of Louis XIY. of 
France; and several brilliant victories were gained in her 
interest by her illustrious general, Prince Eugene, who, as 
has been already stated, participated in the great battles fought 
during the War of the Spanish Succession (see page 272). 

12. Prince Eugene also gained several important victories 
over the Turks, of which the greatest were that of Zenta, in 

Hungary (1697); and that of Bel-grade' (1717), 
the latter resulting in an immense loss to the 
Turks, including the city itself, over which, as 



Defeat of 
the TuiVs. 



being the key of Hungary, very many severe conflicts had 
taken place between the Austrian and Ottoman forces. 
Charles VL, who reigned from 1711 to 1740, was the last of 
the male line of the Hapsburgs; and his death 
was followed by disputes which led to the famous 
War of the Austrian Succession. In this war. 



Austrian 
Succession, 



Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, joined the enemies of 
Maria Theresa, in their attempt to deprive her of her do- 
minions; and the Elector of Bavaria, assuming the imjjerial 
throne, under the title of Charles VII., and being assisted by 
France, advanced to Vienna, and compelled her to flee to 



Germany and Austria. 



fiOf) 



Hiingury. Tlie Hungarians drew their swords enthusiastically 
in her favor, and Charles VII. was forced to retreat. The 
latter died in 1745; and Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of 
Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, 
under the title of Francis I. 

13. The reign of Francis I. was distinguished for the great 
Seven Years' War, which broke out eight years after the 
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1756). Great Britain 
and France quarreled about their colonial pos- 



Seven Years' 
War. 



sessions in North America; Austria was eager to 
regain the territories Avhich Frederick of Prussia had con- 
quered during the previous war; 
and the Empress of Eussia was 
desirous of curbing the pride 
and ambition of the Prussian 
monarch. Poland and Sweden 
joined Eussia; and thus Freder- 
ick, whose only ally was Great 
Britain, had to contend against 
five great states. The Prussian 
king was, however, the greatest 
general of his age ; and the 
many splendid victories which 
he gained with his small but highly disciplined army, illus- 
trate, in a very striking manner, to what an extent the genius 
of a military commander can triumph over superior numbers. 
This war was closed by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763. (See 
Prussia.) 

14. During the reign of Francis II. (1792-1835), occurred 
the great wars with Napoleon, the result of which was, 
that the Empire of the West, or Holy Eoman 
Empire, was dissolved in 1806, after an existence 
of more than a thousand years. Most of the 




Marxa Theresa. 



End of the 
Empire. 



states were formed into the Confederation of the Ehine; and 
Austria became an hereditary empire, over which Francis 



606 Modern History. 



continued to rule until his deiitli in 1835.* After the defeat 
of Napoleon at Leipsic, in 1814, the Confederation of the 
Khine was dissolved; and in 1815 the Congress 
of Vienna formed the Germanic Confederation, 



Other changes. 



consisting of thirty-nine states, of which the central assembly, 
or diet, held its sessions at Frankfort on the Main (miwe).f 
Subsequently, the peace of Germany was much disturbed by 
the repeated contests of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in 
the affairs of the Confederation. During the revolutionary 
period of 1848-9, there was an earnest effort to establish a 
national union of the German states; and in 1849 William I., 
King of Prussia, was elected by the National Parliament 
Hereditary Emperor of Germany; but the kingdoms of Bava- 
ria, AViirtemberg, Hanover, and Saxony withheld their con- 
sent, and Austria protested against the measure. The Prus- 
sian king, therefore, declined the honor. 

15. At this time Bismarck, since so prominent in Ger- 
man affairs, had commenced his career in the Prussian Par- 
liament, by an effort to consolidate the German 
nationality by harmonizing the measures of Aus- 



Bismarck. 



tria and Prussia. Schleswig and Holstein, provinces of Den- 
mark, after a short war with the latter, were jointly occupied 
by these two powers (1864), through his influence, he having 

* The disasters of 1805 destroyed the hold of Austria upon the German states; 
and several of the latter alUed themselves to France for self-protection. In 1806, 
the arch-chancellor of Gennany announced to the diet that he had chosen for his 
successor one of Napoleon's uncles; and shortly after this announcement sixteen 
German princes signed an act of allegiance to the French emperor, and thus dis- 
solved their connection with the German emp""e. This was followed by a declara 
tion on the part of Napoleon that he no longer recognized such an empire. Thus a 
German confederation was formed independent of the Austrian Government, and 
Francis declared himself emperor of Austria. 

t The kingdom of Westphalia, created by Napoleon, was abolished. Prussia was 
enlarged by the addition of the Rhineland, a part of Saxony, and Swedish Pomer- 
ania. The Tyrol and Salzburg were given back to Austria. Hanover was erected 
into a kingdom; and Weimar, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg became grand-duchies; 
Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Lubeck were declared free cities. Thus, 
instead of the restoration of the empire, there was established a German Bund 
Political and religious freedom was proclaimed at the first session of the diet at 
Frankfort in 1816 (November 5). 



Germany and Austria. 



607 



been made, two years before, the minister-president (prime 
minister) of Prussia. A quarrel ensued soon 
afterward; and Austria demanded that the diet 
should call into the field the military forces of 



War against 
Austria. 




Sadowau 



the states against Prussia on account of her invasion of Hol- 
stein. This brought on the war of 18G6 against Austria. 

16. Bismarck had sagaciously contrived to obtain the 
alliance and co-operation of Italy, with the design on the part 
of the latter to acquire possession of the Venetian territories. 
The Italians were defeated; but the Prussians, under the com- 
mand of their king 
(William I.), invaded 
Bohemia; and, in the battle of 
Sad'o-Ava, defeated the Austrians 
with great loss. A treaty soon 
followed, by which Austria was 
excluded from the Germanic Con- 
federation; and Prussia, after in- 
corporating with her own domin- 
ions some of the states, formed 
the North German 
Confederation, 



Bismarck. 



con- 



Results. 



sisting of the states north of the Main, including herself as 
the leading state, and Berlin as the capital. Thus, through 
the Seven Weeks' War, Count Bismarck obtained for Prussia 
that controlling influence in Germany for which he had been 
for some time planning. 

17. But the ultimate object of this wily and far-seeing 
statesman had not yet been attained. This was the complete 
union of Germany, with Prussia at its head. 
As auxiliary to that object, he concluded a secret 
treaty with the South German states, they en- 



Object of 
Bismarck. 



gaging to place their armies at the disposal of Prussia, in case 
of war. Napoleon III., becoming aware of the plans of the 
German minister, determined to thwart them, if possible. 



608 Modern History. 



He demanded that Luxemburg and Mentz should be ceded to 
France, thus extending its eastern frontier to the Rhme; but 
Bismarck replied: " Not an inch of land/not a single fortress, 
shall be given up, cost what it may." War would 
have commenced immediately, but France was 
not prepared. In 1870, the Franco- Prussian War 



Franco-German 
War. 



broke out, by the march of the French armies to the Rhine, 
and resulted in their total defeat (see page 302). At its close 

1 William I. was proclaimed '' King of Prussia and 

I Emperor of Germany" (1871). Bismarck was 
shortly after promoted to the rank of prince, with the title of 
Chancellor of the German Empire. 

Austria. 

18. Austria, after its organization as a separate empire in 

1806, continued to be involved in the great conflict with 

Napoleon, in which she suffered terrible disasters. 

The great defeat at Wagram left her powerless; 

and the Emperor Francis was obliged to submit 



Wars with 
Napoleon. 



to the humiliation of accepting the victorious Corsican as his 
son-in-law (1810). The most important event in the history 
of Austria after the Congress of Vienna was the 
revolt of Hungary, followed by a terrible and 



Other events. 



gigantic war, which terminated in the total defeat of the 
Austrians, after which the Hungarians renounced their alle- 
giance to the House of Hapsburg, and chose their leader 
Kossuth (kosh-shoot') as governor. Austria then obtained the 
intervention of Russia ; and the Hungarian general treach- 
erously surrendered (1849). The revolt was then crushed with 
horrible cruelties ; but Kossuth and other Hungarian patriots 
found an asylum in Turkey, and Kossuth escaping visited 
England and the United States. Since then, concessions have 
been made to the Hungarians, and a separate constitution and 
diet granted. This double nation now bears the title of the 
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1882). 



Prussia, 609 



SECTION II. 

Prussia. 

19. Prussia derives its name from the Bo-rus^si, a fierce 
and warlike tribe of the Slavonic race, who early settled on 
the lands bordering on the Baltic Sea. In the first 
part of the eleventh century they were partially 



Early history. 



subdued by Bo-les'las, king of Poland; but, for more than 
two centuries, they resisted every effort made to convert them 
to Christianity. This was finally established among them by 
means of the crusade carried on against them by the Knights 
of the Teutonic Order,* during more than fifty years. The 
country remained under the government of the Knights for 
about two centuries, when it became partly dependent upon 
the great kingdom of Poland (1462). 

20. The Duchy of Bran'den-burg, a part of these Prussian 
territories, became, in 1640, the nucleus of the present king- 
dom of Prussia, through the efforts of Frederick 
William, styled the Great Elector. From Poland 



Great Elector. 



he obtained a recognition of his claim to the Duchy of Prus- 
sia, which had been hitherto possessed by that kingdom. He 

Geographical Study, Map No. XIX. 

What is the situation of : Paris? Amiens? Luneville? Ivry? Rochelle? Orleans? 
Boulogne? Lyons? Frejus? Toulon? Brussels? Waterloo? Amsterdam? Berlin? 
Stralsund? Friadland? Dresden? Lutzen? Jena? Leipsic? Ulm? Augsburg? Pas- 
sau? Spire? Hohenlinden? Hanover? Lubeck? Moscow? Warsaw? Cracow? 
Smolensk? Borodino? W^ilna? Tilsit? Eilau? Poltava? Constantinople? Nissa? 
Widin? Belgrade? Nicopolis? Vienna? Presburg? Wagram? Austerlitz? Prague? 
Rome? Campo Formio? Marengo? Pavia? Palermo? Madrid? Vittoria? Corunna? 
Talavera? Ciudad Rodrigo? Lisbon? Vimeira? Albuera? Athens? Missolonghi? 
Navarino? 

* The order of Teutonic Knights was founded during the Crusades. Their first 
seat was at Acre ; but, after the destruction of the kingdom of Jerusalem, they 
removed to the banks of the Vistula, and succeeded finally in establishing a sover- 
eignty, which had the control of nearly three millions of people. 



610 



Modern History. 



Prussia a 
kingdom. 



particularly distinguished himself for his successful wars 
against the Swedes, whom, in 1679, he entirely ex^ielled from 
the country. He was also noted for his strenuous efforts in 
the cause of the Protestants; for which he received letters of 
congratulation and thanks from Oliver Cromwell. When the 
Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV., many of the 
exiled Huguenots found a refuge in the dominions of the 
Great Elector. 

21. Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, the last elector, 
Frederick III., liaving been acknowledged king 
by the emperor of Germany, on condition that 
he should aid the cause of Austria in the War of 
the Spanisli Succession. His troops gained great distinction 

by their valor in the battle of 
Blenheim. He was succeeded by 
Frederick William I., in 1713, 
noted for his harsh and eccentric 
character, his fondness for tall* 
soldiers, and his savage treat- 
ment of his son, who succeeded 
him as Frederick II., known as 
Frederick the Great (1740-86). 
Under the latter, Prussia be- 
came one of the greatest mili- 
tary powers in Europe, partly 




Frederick the Great. 



through the magnificent army which had been collected by 

Frederick Wilham I., and disciplined to the highest degree 

of eflSciency. 

22. Taking advantage of the disputes regarding the claims 

of Maria Theresa, Frederick invaded Silesia, and defeated 
the Austrians (1741). This brought on the war 
of the Austrian Succession, in which the Prus- 
sian kine: sfained several victories over the Aus- 



Fredenck the 
Great. 



trians and Saxons, taking Dresden, where he made peace 
(1745). In the Seven Years' War, his victories over the com- 



Prussia, 611 



billed forces of the great powers of Europe gave him a place 
among the most renowned generals of history. French, Austri- 
an, and Kussian armies, each double the number 
of the Prussians, were defeated in turn (1757-8). 
The Eussian defeat at Zorndorf was perhaps the 



Seven Years' 
War. 



most memorable in the war (1758). The treaty of 1763 left 
him with considerably extended dominions. In 1772, the 
Prussian territories were also enlarged by the First Partition 
of Poland. Frederick by no means neglected the internal 
improvement of his kingdom, encouraging agriculture, manu- 
factures, and commerce. He was passionately 
fond of literature, was an intimate friend and 



Character. 



associate of Voltaire, and acquired himself some distinction 
as an author. 

23. The wars with ISTapoleon occurred during the reign of 
Frederick William III. In these, Prussia suffered the terrible 
overthrow of Jena (1806), but redeemed her honor 
through the achievements of Blucher (bloo'ker), 



to whose skill, courage, and promptitude the great victories 
of Leipsic and Waterloo were partly due. Blucher's hatred 
of Napoleon and the French was intense; and, 
had he not been overruled by the other generals. 



Paris, in 1814, would have been given up to be pillaged by 
the soldiers. 

24. By the Congress of Vienna the Prussian territories 
were much enlarged; and during the subsequent part of the 
reign of Frederick William, the condition of 
Prussia was greatly improved. The establish- 



Later events. 



ment of common schools of a high order of excellence did 
much to enlighten the people and augment the real strength 
of the kingdom. Frederick William III. was succeeded in 
1840 by his son, Frederick William IV., who died in 1861. 
During the reign of his successor, William I., the changes in 
the Prussian dominions occurred, which have been explained 
in connection is^ith the history of Germany. By the recon- 



612 



Modern History. 



struction of the Empire of Germany, King William as em- 
peror is now one of the great potentates of the world 
(1882). 



SECTION III. 

Holland and Belgium. 

25. Holland and Belgium, called the Netherlands, or Low 
Countries, constituted, in 1843, a part of Germany. For 
several centuries it was under the rule of petty 
princes, and afterward formed a part of the 



Early history. 



duchy of Burgundy. Several of its cities, Ghent^ Antwerp, 
Brussels, and Mechlin, grew strong and rich by their trade 

and manufactures. The death 
of Charles the Bold and the 
marriage of his daughter, Mary 
of Burgundy, to Maximilian, 
brought the Netherlands for a 
time under the sway of Austria; 
but they subsequently passed by 
inheritance to Charles V., who 
was the grandson of Maximilian 
and Mary. 

26. The historical impor- 
tance of these states commences 
in the reign of Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor of 
Charles, through the resistance made by their 
spirited inhabitants to the tyranny and intoler- 

ance of that bigoted monarch. Under their 

great leader, William of Orange, surnamed the '* Silent," 
the " Seven United Provinces" successfully revolted against 
the cruelties of the Duke of Alva, viceroy of Philip, and 




William op Orange. 



Rise of the 
republic. 



Holland and Belgium. G13 

declared their independence, William becoming their first 
president with tlie title of Stadtholder (1581). 
This illustrious soldier and statesman was assas- 
sinated in 1584,* but the United Provinces were 



William of 
Orange. 



presided over by the princes of Orange until the French Revo- 
lution. The other provinces (Belgium) continued to belong 
to Spain until they were transferred to Austria (1713). 

27. The Dutch republic became, a short time after its 
independence, the most formidable maritime power in the 
world. The part taken by it in the great Euro- 
pean wars, and its successive contests with Great 



Dutch republic. 



Britain, have already been related. During the French Revo- 
lution, the National Convention having declared war against 
Holland, the country was overrun by the French armies; and 
the anti-Orange faction excited a popular insurrection which 
expelled William V., the last of the Stadtholders, and led to 
the establishment of the Batavian Republic, under the control 
of the French (1795). Belgium became a part of France. 

28. Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother Louis king of 
Holland, but afterward dethroned him, and annexed the 
country to France. After the fall of Napoleon, 
the Congress of Vienna reunited Holland and 



Later changes. 



Belgium, and thus formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 
which was placed under one of the Orange family, with the 
title of AVilliaml. This union lasted till 1830, when Bel- 
gium successfully revolted, and became a separate kingdom, 
Leopold, a German prince, being placed upon the throne. 
In 1865, he was succeeded by Leopold II. Holland is now 
(1882) ruled by William III., who ascended the throne in 1849. 

* " The gloom produced by the assassination of William of Orange was tragical. 
Never in human history was a more poignant and universal sorrow for the death 
of any individual. The despair was, for a brief season, absolute ; but it was soon 
succeeded by more lofty sentiments. It seemed, after they had laid their hero in 
the tomb, as though his spirit still hovered above the nation which he had loved 
so well, and was inspiring it with a portion of his own energy and wisdom."— ilfof- 
Zey's United Netherlands. 



G14 Modern History. 



SECTION IV. 

SWITZEELAND. 

29. The chief events in tli^ history of SwitzerLind, after 
the establishment of its independence in 1499, were those 
connected with the changes in religion brought 



Zwingli. 



about by the celebrated Protestant preacher 
Zwin'gli, an associate of Luther and Melanchthon. The can- 
tons were soon involved in a civil war on account 
of religious dissensions. Zurich, in 1523, adopted 



Religious wars. 



the oi^inions of Zwingli, and was followed by Berne, and 
other cantons in the north; while the forest cantons re- 
mained attached to the Catholic Church. In a battle fought 
in 1531, the latter were victorious, and Zwingli was slain. 
Geneva was the residence of John Calvin, one of 
the most noted of the Protestant divines: and 



Calv 



from his preaching spread the doctrines which afterward 
characterized the Puritans of England, and the people of 
Scotland. The death of Calvin occurred in 1564. 

30. The neutrality of Switzerland was preserved during 
the Thirty Years' War; and at its close, the peace of West- 
phalia secured the independence of the Con- 
federacy, by acknowledging it as a separate 



Later history. 



state. At this period, the Swiss were among the best soldiers 
in Europe, and were employed in immense numbers by 
foreign states. In 1798, the French armies overran Switzer- 
land; and, in 1802, Napoleon, as First Consul, annexed three 
of the cantons to France, and formed of the others a con- 
federation dependent upon it. The Congress of Vienna 
restored the cantons, and re-established the republic, consist- 
ing of twenty-two cantons (1815). The new constitution, 
adopted by the federal diet in the same year, was ratified by 
the great powers, and the perpetual independence of the 
Confederation was declared. The last revision of this con- 
stitution was adopted in 1874. 



Italy. 61/) 

SECTION V. 

Italy. 

31. Italy continued to be divided into a number of small 
states until the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy (1861). 
Among these states the Duchy of Sav'oy be- 
came, in the latter period of the Middle Ages, a 



Savoy. 



power of considerable importance. During the wars of Louis 
XIA^. of France, it took sides with the allies, and was reward- 
ed, by the treaty of Utrecht, with the island of Sicily and 
other territories. The Kingdom of Sardinia 
originated in a treaty made between Savoy and 



Sardinia. 



Austria (1720), by which Sicily was exchanged for the island 
of Sardinia, and the Duke of Savoy was acknowledged king. 
By Napoleon it was stripped of much of its territory, which 
was restored by the Congress of Vienna, who also annexed to 
it the ancient republic of Genoa. 

32. Charles Albert was a vigorous monarch of Sardi- 
nia; and, during his reign (1831-49), many reforms were 
introduced into the government, in compliance 
with the demands for a more liberal policy, by 



Charles Albert. 



the people. At the revolutionary period of 1848, the kmg 
announced a new constitution, which was hailed with much 
satisfaction. An insurrection of the Austrian states of Italy 
broke out, and the king placed himself at the 
head of the Italian forces. Being disastrously 



Victor Emanuel- 



defeated, he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son, 
Victor Emanuel (1849), during whose reign many changes 
occurred in Italy. Joseph Car-i-bal'di, the famous Italian 
patriot, landing in Sicily, proclaimed himself 
dictator for Victor Emanuel. After taking 
Palermo by storm, and defeating the army of the King of 
Naples, he invaded the peninsula, and continuing in his vic- 
torious career, compelled the king (Francis II.) to flee (1860), 



Garibaldi. 



616 Modern History. 



33. Victor Emanuel afterward entered ^^aples, and was 
acknowledged king. Lombardy had been wrested the year 
before from Austria, through the aid of the 
French emperor, Napoleon III., who gained the 
splendid victories of Magenta and Solferino over 



Kingdom 
of Italy. 



the Austrian forces. As a result of the successful insurrec- 
tion of 1860, the states of Italy, except Venetia and a part of 
the Papal territories, were consolidated into the Kingdom of 
Italy; and Victor Emanuel, the former king of Sardinia, was 
placed on the throne by the Italian Parliament. He was soon 
afterward recognized as king of Italy by France and England, 
and fixed his capital at Florence (1861). After the war of 
1867, Venetia was given up by Austria, and sub- 
sequently Garibaldi made an attack on the Papal 



Rome. 



territory, but his forces were repulsed by the French. After 
the Franco-German war, so disastrous to France, the French 
forces were withdrawn, and the Italian army soon afterward 
entered Rome, which the Italian Parliament pro- 
claimed the capital of the Kingdom of Italy 



Humbert i. 



(1870), Victor Emanuel made his formal entry into the city 
the next year. On his death, in 1878, this king was succeeded 
by his son, Humbert I., who still reigns (1882). 



SECTION VI. 
Spain". 



34. Charles V. of Germany, previous to his election as 
emperor, inherited the throne of Spain, being the grandson 
of Isabella of Castile. His reign (Doli Carlos I.), 
which commenced at the death of Ferdinand 



(1516), lasted forty years; but is chiefly occupied with the 
general affairs of Europe. Cardinal Ximenes (ze-me'neez), 
one of the most celebrated personages of his age, administered 



Spain. 



617 



Philip II. 



the government till 1517, with great vigor and ability. Charles 
was succeeded, on his abdication, by Philip II. 
(1556), who thus became one of the greatest 
potentates on earth, being ruler over Spain, the Netherlands, 
Sicily, Naples, and other parts of Italy, besides of such parts 
of the New World as had been added to the dominions of 
Spain by the discoveries of Columbus and that navigator's 
successors. 

35. Philip's schemes were principally actuated by bigotry, 




and nearly all ended in utter failure; so that, at his death 
(1598), he left the country despoiled of some of 
its best possessions, impoverished by ruinous 
wars, and greatly lowered in the respect of 



Condition 
of Spain. 



foreign nations. His successor (Philip III.) still further 
weakened the kingdom by the expulsion of the 
Moors (1610), who had been permitted by Ferdi- 



Moors. 



nand to remain in the country, on condition of their accepting 



618 Modern History. 



Christianity. This measure of Philip III., which was based 
on the charge of hypocrisy in the professed conversion of 
the Moors, deprived Spain of 500,000 of its most useful 
population. 

36. The reign of Philip IV. (1621-65) was noted for the 
loss of Portugal, which had been annexed to Spain during the 
reign of Philip II. (1580). It now re-established 
its independence as a separate kingdom under 



Portugal. 



the Duke of Bra-gan'za (1640). Philip IV. made the most 
strenuous exertions to recover the lost province, and his 
failure is said to have partly occasioned his death. During 
the next reign (Charles II., 1665-1700), Spain 
was left, by the imbecility of its government, a 



Later events. 



prey to the other nations of Europe, by whom it was despoiled 

of many of its best possessions. The placing of Philip V. 

upon the throne, by his grandfather, Louis XIV., led to the 

War of the Spanish Succession (see page 560.) 

37. The attempts of the Emperor Napoleon I. to obtain 

the control of Spain, occasioned the Peninsular War, the chief 
events of which have already been related. The 
conclusion of peace, in 1814, restored Ferdinand 



Other events. 



VII. to the throne, who dissolved the Cortes, or Parli^iment, 
and established an absolute rule. A revolution which broke 
out in 1820, compelled him to restore the free constitution 
formed in 1812, and placed him under restraint. 
Louis XVIII. of France, however, sending an 
army into Spain, released him, and restored his 



American 
colonies. 



authority. The War of Spanish Independence in America, 
which broke out in 1810, by the revolt of New Grena'da and 
Venezue'la, ended in 1825, the American colonies, one by one, 
having achieved their independence. * 

* Spain, once the richest nation in the world, from her American and other con- 
quests, had by this time lost the whole of her vast foreign dominions, except Cuba 
and Porto Rico in the west, and the Philippine Islands in the east, with a few un- 
important possessions. 



Portugal, 619 



38. Isabella II. wus proclaimed queen on the death of 
Ferdinand, her father, in 1833, but was opposed by Don 
Carlos, her uncle, who claimed the throne on 
the ground that the law of succession excluded 



Isabella II. 



females. A war of four years ensued ; and finally Great 
Britain sent an army in aid of Isabella, whereupon Don 
Carlos, hopeless of success, fled to France. Isabella's rule 
gave great dissatisfaction, and in 1868, after a successful 
insurrection, she was obliged to flee, seeking 
a refuge in France. A provisional government 



Revolution. 



was then organized, under Generals Serrano and Prim, fol- 
lowed by a regency with Serrano at its head. In 1871, Duke 
Aosta, second son of Victor Emanuel, became king by elec- 
tion of the Cortes, with the title of Amade'us I.; but, after a 
short and stormy reign, he abdicated (1873); and a republic 
was proclaimed. Civil war in various parts of 
Spain followed, until Alfonso, son of Isabella II., 



who had been proclaimed king in Madrid and acknowledged 
by some of the armies, landed in Spain; and the Carlist in- 
surrectionists* were overthrown (1876). This event placed 
Alfonso XII. firmly on the Spanish throne, which he still 
occupies (1882). 



SECTION VII. 

POKTUGAL. 



39. It was during the reign of Emanuel, surnamed the 
Fortunate (1495-1521), that Vasco da Gama made his suc- 
cessful voyage to India, by way of the Cape of 
Good Hope (1497). This was soon followed by 
the accidental discovery of Brazil, bv Cabral 



Maritime 
enterprises. 



(1500), in a voyage to India, thus giving that extensive and 

* These were the supporters of the claims of Don Carlos, a grandson of Isabella's 
uncle, who had previously contended for the throne. 



620 Modern History. 



fertile region to the Portuguese. Important voyages were 
made to this region by Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian naviga- 
tor in the Portuguese service (1501 and 1504). In the same 
reign the Portuguese established their authority in India, 
making many conquests and founding several colonies. 
Among their conquests were Ceylon (1505) and Malacca 
(1511). Japan was discovered a few years later (1543).* 

40. An unfortunate expedition of Sebastian III. to Mo- 
rocco (1578), from which he never returned, left Portugal 
without a sovereign, and occasioned disorder and 
anarchy, — the people constantly looking for the 



Sebastian III. 



return of their king, of whose fate no tidings were ever re- 
ceived. Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of these cir- 
cumstances, seized upon the country (1580); and 
for sixty years it was held in subjection to the 



Spanish rule. 



Spanish crown. During this period, it suffered much from 
the oppressive exactions of its conquerors, being obliged to 
share in the taxation occasioned by the long and 
expensive wars waged by the Spanish monarchs. 



John IV, 



At last, it was set free by a revolution; and John IV., Duke 
of Braganza, ascended the throne (1640). Long wars fol- 
lowed with Spain, which did not acknowledge the independ- 
ence of Portugal till 1668. 

41. During the next century, Portugal remained in a state 
of inglorious stagnation, being steeped in ignorance and 
bigotry; and, after being one of the greatest mari- 
time nations of the world, was content to become 
a kind of commercial dependent of Great Britain. 



State of 
the nation. 



Under the reign of Joseph I. (1750-77), the genius and 



* " Intercourse with the Chinese was commenced in the year 1518, when an em- 
bassy sent to their empire had the good fortune to drive off a pirate from the shores, 
and in consequence was received with favor, and rewarded with the town of Macao 
as a settlement. Japan was discovered in IhX'i^ by the accidental drifting of a ves- 
sel to its shores. The Portuguese soon acquired an ascendency over the petty 
princes who then governed the islands, and laid the foundations of a profitable 
commerce." — Yeats' s Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, 



Portugal. 621 



enterprise of his great minister, Don Carvalho (kar-vaVyo) 
infused a temporary vigor in the government; 
but this was checked by the accession of his 



Don Carvalho. 



daughter Maria, who permitted the nobles and clergy to 
resume their destructive influence. Her insanity led to the 
appointment of her eldest son, John VI., as regent (1702). 

42. The invasion of Portugal by the French, under Mar- 
shal Junot, induced John to abandon Portugal and retire to 
Brazil (1807), where he remained until 1821, al- 
though by the death of his mother he had been 



French invasion. 



acknowledged king in 1816. His return was occasioned by 
the breaking out of a revolution in Portugal, which had for 
its object the establishment of a government 
securing the rights of the people. John ac- 



Revolutioh. 



cepted the new constitution, and acknowledged the indepen- 
dence of Brazil, the throne of the latter country being occupied 
by his son, Dom Pedro (1825), with the title of emperor. 

43. On the death of John VI. (1826), his son Dom Pedro, 
preferring the throne of Brazil, resigned that of Portugal in 
favor of his daughter Maria da Gloria; but her 
uncle Dom Miguel {me'ghel), who had previous- 



Dom Pedro. 



ly opposed the reforms in the government, laid claim to the 
throne, and obtained from the Cortes an acknowledgment 
of his right (1828). This led to a dreadful condition of 
anarchy for a time, which was terminated by Dom Pedro, 
with the aid of the British, Dom Miguel being compelled to 
submit (1834). In that year Maria 11. commenced her reign, 
which was terminated by her death (1853), when 
her son Pedro V. succeeded under the resrencv of 



Later history. 



his father. This king's reign was short but meritorious; and, 
on his death (1861), his brother Louis I. ascended the throne, 
under whom Portugal has made a steady advancement. Im- 
portant internal improvements have been completed, slavery 
has been abolished in the colonies, and many wise and benefi- 
cent measures carried into effect. 



622 Modern History. 



SECTION YIII. 

Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. • 

44. These three countries in the Middle Ages were in- 
habited bj a Scandinavian ])eo2ole, the descendants of the 
Goths and other barbarous races. Each was 
governed by its own princes till the beginning of 



Early history. 



the 14th century, when Norway was united with Sweden. 
The three countries were formed into one kingdom, under the 
rule of Margaret, Queen of Denmark, in the latter part of the 
same century (1397). This union, however, was neither 
effectual nor permanent; but the kings of Denmark continued 
to claim and exercise some sway over these countries till 1523, 
when Sweden was freed from the tyranny of Christian II. of 
Denmark, by the patriotic exertions of the renowned Gustavus 
Vasa. 

Sweden. 

45. This illustrious man was afterward elected king of 
Sweden, and, by his wise and beneficent measures, estab- 

■ I lished the prosperity of the kingdom, and gave 

. LJ to this semi-barbarous state an honorable place 

among the civilized monarchies of Europe. His reign of 
thirty-seven years (1523-1560) was also signalized by the 
establishment of Protestantism. The next important reign 
was that of the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, 
the hero of Lutzen. His death, in 1632, would 
have been an irreparable disaster to his country 



Gustavus 
Adolphus. 



but for the virtues and talents of his minister Ox'en-stiern 
(-derti), who administered the government during the minor- 
ity of Christina {kris-te'nali), daughter of Gustavus. 

46. Charles XI., during his long reign (1660-1697), suc- 
ceeded in enlarging the Swedish territories, and 
obtained from the diet a decree giving to him ab- 



solute power. His reign was exceedingly prosperous, and the 



Sweden^ Noi^ioay^ and DenmarTc. 623 

internal condition of the kingdom was much improved. 
Charles XII., called sometimes the " Madman of the North," 
succeeded. His passion for conquest and mili- 
tary glory plunged his country into many miseries 



and misfortunes. A coalition formed against him by Den- 
mark, Poland, and Russia led to the Northern War, in which 
Charles gained several brilliant yictories over the Danes and 
Russians; and having succeeded in dethroning the king of 
Poland, placed in his stead Stanislas (1704). 

47. A severe contest with the czar of Russia followed, and 
Charles invaded that country with a large army, which, after 
suffering the most dreadful hardships from cold 
and hunger, was finally defeated at Pol-ta'va 



Poltava. 



(1709). Charles took refuge in Turkey, and succeeded in 
persuading the Turkish emperor to declare war against 
Russia; but he afterward quarrelled with the emperor, and 
was compelled, after remaining more than five years in Turkey, 
to flee. He returned to Sweden in 1714, and still 
continued to carry out his ambitious designs till 
his death, which occurred during the siege of a 
town in Norway (1718). 

48. The vacillating policy of Gustavus IV., during the 
Napoleonic wars, led to the loss of Bothnia and Finland; 
and, in 1809, he was obliged to abdicate in favor 
of his uncle, Charles XIII. This king being 



Death of 
Charles. 



without heirs, Ber-na-dotte', one of Napoleon's marshals, Avas 
raised to the rank of Crown Prince (1810), and became 
virtually the king. With the title of Charles XIV., he for- 
mally ascended the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, 
the two countries having been united in 1815. His reign, 
which was characterized by vigor and moderation, 
lasted until 1844, and was followed by that of his 



Later history. 



son Oscar, who ruled till 1859, when he was succeeded by his 
grandson Charles XV., who died in 1872. The reigning mon- 
arch is Oscar II., the brother of Charles (1882). 



624 Modern History. 



49. Norway continued to be united to Denmark until 
1814, when, by the treaty of Kiel {keel), the allied powers 
compelled the latter to resign her possession of 
Norway to Sweden. The union of the two coun- 



Norway. 



tries was afterward confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. 
The people of Norway made some resistance to this arrange- 
ment; but the country being invaded by an army under Ber- 
nadotte, they were reduced to submission. The constitutional 
privileges of the nation have, however, been retained; and the 
condition of the country, under the Bernadotte dynasty, has 
been one of peace and prosperity. 

Denmark. 

50. After the separation of Sweden and Denmark (1523), 
the latter was governed by Frederick I., who introduced the 
Lutheran religion into his dominions. During 
the next reign, Schles'wig and Hol'stein were 



Chief events. 



annexed to the Danish territories. Under Christian IV., 
Denmark took an active part in the Thirty Years' War; but 
defeat and disaster were the consequence, and Christian was 
obliged to submit to very humiliating conditions of peace 
(1629). During the Napoleonic wars. Great Britain, claim- 
ing the right to search foreign vessels, took a 
Danish frigate that had made resistance. This 



British war. 



led to a league with Russia, Prussia, and Sweden, against the 
naval power of Great Britain. Nelson, however, attacked and 
destroyed the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen, and 
thus paralyzed the naval power of the confederacy (1801). 
The British again destroyed the Danish fleet in 1807, in con- 
sequence of a threatened alliance with France. By the treaty 
of Vienna, Denmark received the duchy of Lau'en-burg 
(1815). 

51. In 1848, a revolt occurred in Schleswig and Holstein, 
to produce a separation of the duchies from the Danish 
crown; but it was subdued, through assistance furnished by 



Poland. 625 



Austria. In 1864, Prussia, in alliance with Austria, com- 
pelled Denmark to give up these territories, and thus confined 
her sway to the peninsula and the adjacent islands. The 
marriage, in 1863, of the English Prince of Wales 
to Alexandra, daughter of the Danish king. 



Alexandra. 



Christian IX., a third time allied Denmark to Great Britain. 
Christian is still the reigning monarch (1882). 



^ SECTION IX. 

Poland. 

52. Poland was created into a kingdom, and became an 

extensive and powerful monarchy, during the Middle Ages. 
In the latter part of the fourteenth century oc- 
curred its first union with Lith-u-a'ni-a, a larsfe 



Early history. 



district extending to the Nie'men and Dnieper rivers. Soon 
after this, successful wars were waged with the Teutonic 
Knights, which resulted in uniting the Prussian provinces 
with Poland (1462). During the reign of Sigismund I. (1506- 
1548), a war Avas carried on with the Russians, who thus 
acquired Smolensk. Through the wise and beneficent meas- 
ures of this sovereign, Poland was much improved, and 
reached a very high degree of greatness and splendor. 

53. In the next reign (Sigismund II.), occurred the final 
union of Poland and Lithuania (1569); and the Protestant 
doctrines took a firm hold of the higher classes. 
At the close of this reign (1572), the monarchy 



Changes. 



was made elective; and the first king chosen was Henry of 
Valois, afterward Henry III. of France. This change in the 
constitution of the kingdom was very injurious to its interests, 
since it fomented faction and gave rise to repeated civil 
wars. The next century was chiefly occupied in wars with 



626 Modern History. 



the two great northern powers, Sweden and Russia. During 
the reign of John Oas'i-mer (1648-68), a Swedish 
army overran Poland, took War'saw and Cra'cow, 



Wars. 



and compelled the king to flee. The Poles, however, made a 
vigorous effort to preserve their independence, and, having 
expelled the Swedes, restored their sovereign to his throne. 

54. The reign of John Sobieski is one of the most brilliant 
in Polish history. He was a great warrior, and saved bis 
country from the Cossacks and the Turks. His 
defeat of the latter near Vienna, in 1683, has 



Sobieski 



already been referred to. The constant dissensions and turbu- 
lence of the Polish nobles, however, frustrated all his efforts 
to improve and strengthen the kingdom, and prepared the 
way for its final dismemberment and ruin. The 
last king of Poland was Stanislas Augustus, 



Stanislas. 



during whose reign occurred the First Partition (1772), by 
which Austria, Russia, and Prussia divided most of its 
dominions among themselves, leaving to the Polish king only 
a nominal authority over those remaining to him. Twenty 
years later, the war with the Russians again broke out; but 
they were defeated by the Poles, under their re- 
nowned leader Prince Po-ni-a-tow'ski (-tov'she), 



Poniatowski. 



in several engagements, notwithstanding which Stanislas sub- 
mitted to the Second Partition, by which the Polish territories 
were still further diminished (1793). 

55. The next year the Poles made an ineffectual effort 
to regain their lost liberties, under that noble and illustrious 
patriot Thad'de-us Kos-ci-us'ko, who had so 
generously lent his sword to the cause of Ameri- 



Kosciusko. 



can freedom, in the war of the Revolution. At first victorious, 
the brave Poles were soon obliged to succumb to the over- 
whelming masses of the Russians, commanded by the fierce 
and relentless Suvaroff; and Kosciusko was wounded and 
made a prisoner (1794). Warsaw was soon after taken by 
storm, and the last relic of Polish independence was destroyed 



Mussia. 627 



by the Third Partition (1795). Stanislas died a broken- 
hearted exile in St. Petersburg (1798). Kosciusko, kept for 
some time a captive at St. Petersburg, was afterward released; 
and for many years wandered in America, France, and 
Switzerland. In the last-named country he died, from the 
effects of a fall from his horse (1817). 

66. The wars waged by Napoleon I. against the enemies 
of Poland excited new hopes in the people of regaining their 
independence; but these were destroyed by the 
Congress of Vienna, who gave some of the Polish 



Russian control. 



territories to Prussia and Austria, and formed of the remain- 
der the kingdom of Poland, under the control of the czar. 
After an unsuccessful insurrection of the Poles in 1830, this 
kingdom was incorporated with the Russian Empire. Another 
insurrection took place in 1863; but it was soon crushed by 
the overwhelming force of the Russian Government, and the 
severest punishments were inflicted upon tens of thousands 
of the unfortunate insurgents. 



SECTION X. 
Russia. 



57. The ancestors of the Russians were the Slavs, who at 
an early period formed settlements near the sources of the 
Dnieper, Dniester, and Don rivers, and the 
Baltic Sea. Of these Novgorod' and Kiev 



Early history. 



(he-ev') were the chief. The size and influence of the former, 
while it was a member of the Hanseatic League in the thir- 
teenth century, were so great, that it was called 
the Mighty Novgorod. It was the metropolis of 



Novgorod. 



one of the most extensive of tlie Russian states, occupying a 
vast tract that stretched from the Baltic to the White Sea. 



628 



Modern History, 



68. For several centuries Russia was overrun by the Mon- 
gols, from whom it was emancipated by Ivan (e-van') III., one of 
the greatest of its monarchs, who, during his reign 
of nearly half a century (1462-1505), did very much 



to improve and elevate the people. He liad married a niece 
of Constantine Palaeologus, and endeavored to introduce into 
his country the laws, institutions, and arts of civilization 
peculiar to the Greek Empire. During this and the two suc- 
ceeding reigns, the petty principalities were abolished, and 
Russia assumed the character of a consolidated 
em])ire (1584). A short time previous to this. 



Siberia. 



the conquest of Siberia had 
been commenced ; and, in 
1664, Ir-koutsk' was founded. 
59. Russia owes its great- 
ness as a European power to 
the talents and 
energy of Peter 
the Great, (1682- 



Peter the 
Great. 




Peter the Great. 



1725) who was one of the most 
extraordinary personages de- 
scribed in history. With an in- 
flexible will, he was dismayed 
by no difficulty and appalled 
by no danger. With the spirit of an enlightened patriot, he 
resolved to introduce among his people the useful arts, the 
civilized customs, and the beneficent institutions which he 
saw prevailing in other countries of Europe. To accomplish 
this, he visited England, Holland, and other countries; and 
even engaged himself as a common mechanic, to obtain a 
knowledge of the arts which he desired to teach his people 
(1697-8). In 1703, the capital was removed from Moscow to 
his new city, St. Petersburg. 

60. Previous to this, the war with Charles XII. of Sweden 
broke out; and Peter was defeated with great loss in the 



Bussia. 



629 



Defeat of 
Charles XII. 



battle of Narva (1700). Profiting by this experience, the 
Russian monarch re-organized his army; and when Charles 
invaded Russia, in 1707, he was permitted to 
penetrate farther and farther into those dreary 
regions of frost and famine, till, with a small 
and half-famished remnant of his great army, he was sur- 
rounded at Poltava, and entirely defeated (1709). Two years 
later, Peter allowed the Russian army to be surrounded by 
the Turks near the Pruth (proot) River; and 
was saved from a terrible disaster by an artifice of 
the Empress Catharine, who bought oft' the vizier with her 

jewels. Peter died in 1725. 



61. Catharine I., the widow 
of the great czar, 
succeeded him. 



Turks. 




Catharine I. 



ml in g for two years. Sh e had 
originally been a peasant girl; 
but, by her prudence, intel- 
ligence, and enterprise, she 
did much to facilitate the 
beneficent objects of her dis- 
tinguished husband. Prince 
Men'shi-koff, the chief min- 
ister of Peter, had also risen 
from a very humble station. During the 
beth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine, 
Russia became a prominent nation and took a 



Catiivki 



reign of Eliza- 



distinguished part in the Seven Years' War (1741-62). 

62. The profligate empress Catharine II. (1702-96) had 
the celebrated Po-tem'kin for her minister and favorite. 
Wars Avere waged with Turkey and Poland, and 
the Crimea was wrested from the former in 1784. 



Catha 



The Turks were afterwards severely defeated by the famous 
General Suvaroff, and were thus compelled to submit to 
further loss of territory (1792). This general also distin- 



6S0 Modern Hisiory. 



giiished himself during the next reign (Paul) ni the wars 
waged against Napoleon. Paul was assassinated 
in 1801, and was succeeded by Alexander I., who 



entered into the several coalitions formed against Napoleon. 
This monaTch commenced his reign with liberal 
ideas and a desire to effect reforms, but he became 



Alexander I. 



arbitrary and misanthropic, and ruled as an absolute despot 

till his death in 1825. He was succeeded by his brother 

Nicholas. 

63. The reign of Nicholas I., who was also a stern despot, 

is noted for tb.3 insurrection in Poland (1830), and the cruel 
punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate Poles 
by the remorseless emperor. The crushing out 



of the Hungarian insurrection by the interference of Eussia, 
and the Crimean war (1853-5), were also events of this reign. 
Nicholas died while the latter was m progress, and 
was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. (1855). 



Alexander II. 



The next year, the treaty of Paris was concluded, by which Eus- 
sia was obliged to resign her claims to the Danubian princi- 
palities, and to the unrestricted navigation of the Black Sea. 
64. Alexander II. commenced his reign with a series of 
liberal reforms, the greatest of which was the emancipation 
of the serfs by a decree issued in 1861, by means 
of which fourteen millions of people were re- 



Later history. 



leased from bondage, and made free citizens. The defeat of 
the celebrated leader Scha'myl, who had organized an inde- 
pendent government over the mountain tribes of the Caucasus, 
took place in 1859. An insurrection in Poland was suppressed 
in 1864, and the people were again treated with extreme 
rigor. Since 1865 Eussia has made extensive conquests in 
central Asia, successively bringing under her sway the rich 
and fertile khanates of Turkistan (toor-his-tan'). Khiva, one 
of the most important of these, was conquered in 1875. 

65. In 1875-6 insurrections broke out in the Christian 
provinces of Bos'nia, Servia, Bulgaria, and others; and the 



Turkey. mi 



atrocities committed by the Turkish soldiery in suppressing 
them caused a thrill of horror throughout the civilized 
world.* Eussia took occasion to interfere m 
behalf of the religious freedom of the provinces, 



Eastern war. 



and demanded guarantees of the Turkish Government which 
the latter refused to grant. War accordingly ensued, dur- 
ing which the Russian armies, having invaded the Ottoman 
dominions both in Europe and Asia, gained several important 
victories. This war was closed by the treaty of Berlin (1878), 
with the result stated in the history of Turkey (see page 346). 
The commotions excited by the extreme revolu- 
tionary party called Nihilists have for some years 



disturbed the nation; and several attempts were made on the 
czar's life, the last of which was successful, Alexander being 
assassinated in St. Petersburg (1881). He was succeeded by 
his son Alexander III, the present czar (1882). 



SECTION XL 
Turkey. 



66. Mohammed II., the conqueror of Oonstantinoi:>le, 
greatly enlarged the Turkish territories; and his son Bajazet 
11. (1481-1512) extended his dominions still 
further, adding a part of the region north of the 



Conquests. 



Black Sea, together with portions of Italy and Austria. His 

* " These atrocities excited universal astonishment and horror when their full 
extent had been made known. Mr. W. E. Gladstone, late premier of the British 
cabinet, was prompted by them to write a pamphlet full of burning denunciation of 
the administration in power in Great Britain [Earl of Beaconsfleld's], for its 
attempt to palliate the enormitj- of the offenses and its toleration of the Turkish 
Government, which, knowing that they had been committed, had not taken efficient 
measures to bring the perpetrators of them to justice. In this pamphlet he pro- 
nounced them ' the basest and blackest outrages upon record within the present 
century, if not within the memory of man,' and characterized them as crimes and 
outrages so vast in scale as to exceed all modem example, and so uiuitterablj- vile 
as well as fierce in character, that it pains the power of heart to conceive, and of 
tongue and pen adequately to describe them."— ^. J. Schemes War in the East. 



632 Modern History. 



successor, Selim I. (1512-20), made conquest of Syria, Egypt, 
and other countries, and laid the foundation of the Turkish 
naval power, Avhich so long disputed the empire of the 
Mediterranean with the fleets of Venice. The greatest power 
and splendor were, however, attained by the Ottoman Em- 
pire during the reign of Solyman, surnamed the Mag)iificent 
(1520-66). 

67. This great monarch reduced the powerful Danuhian 
fortresses of Belgrade (1521), wrested the island of Rhodes 
from its persevering and valiant defenders, the 
Knights of St. John (1522), and, luiving invaded 



Sol>man. 



Hungary and taken Buda (1529), marched to Vienna, which 
he besieged for a long time, but was repulsed with great loss 
(1529). A second attempt, in 1532, was e(|ually unsuccessful. 
He also carried on a successful war with the Shah (emperor) 
of Persia; and his fleets triumphantly swept the Mediterranean 
from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Levant. One of his last 
undertakings was an unsuccessful attack on the island of 
Malta, which the Emperor Charles V. had given to the Knights 
of St. John, after their expulsion from Rhodes (1565). 

68. During the reign of Selim IT. (1566-74), the German 
emperor agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Turks for 
their surrender of Hungary. The attempt to take 
Astrachan', a city on the Volga, preliminary to 



Selim II. 



the construction of a canal between the Don and Volga rivers 
— a scheme projected by the Turkish emperor for commercial 
purposes — aroused the hostility of the Russians, a people until 
that time little known in southern Europe. Thus were com- 
menced those fierce wars, which for centuries have been 
waged by these neighboring empires. During the reign of 
Selim, the fleets of Turkey received a check by the great naval 
defeat sustained at Lepanto, in Greece, in an action with Don 
John of Austria (1571). 

69. The subsequent reigns, for more than a century, pre- 
sent only a continuous series of contests with Germany, 



Turkey. 633 



Poland, and Russia, in which the Ottoman power succeeded 
in extending its dominions from the Danube to tlie 
Tigris, and from the southern limits of Egyi)t 



to the falls of the Dnie})er River. It sustained, however, 
several defeats, of which that at Vienna by the 
Poles under their kine^, John Sobieski, was the 



Defeats. 



most memorable (1683);* and Prince Eugene, while in the 
imperial service, gained one of his greatest victories over the 
Turks at Zenta, a city in Hungary (1097). The Turks aban- 
doned all their Hungarian j^ossessions in the treaty which 
followed (1699). The assistance given to Charles XIL, after 
the battle of Poltava, involved the Turks in a 
war with Peter the Great, to whom it would 



Morea. 



have proved a great disaster, had he not been rescued by the 
skillful artifice of tlie Empress Catharine. A short time after 
this, the Morea (southern part of Greece) was taken from the 
Venetians (1714). 

70. Contests with Russia take up the largest part of its 
subsequent history. During a six years' war (1768-7-1), the 
Russians overran the Ci'imea, which they suc- 
ceeded in retaining, notwithstanding the most 
desperate efforts of the Turks to regain it. While 



Wars with 
Russia. 



Catharine II. of Russia was on the throne, the Turks were 
assailed by the combined power of Russia and Austria, the 
forces of the former being commanded by Marshal Suvaroff, 
the most famous of Russian generals, and particularly noted 
for his resolution and relentless ferocity. Peace was con- 
cluded between Russia and Turkey in 1792. 

* " Never was there a more complete owerthrow. It was like the explosion of a 
mine; it was so sudden. After the battle, the Elector of Bavaria, and many others 
of the princes, fell on my neck and kissed me in the fullness of their joy. The 
generals hoisted me on their shoulders and carried me through their ranks. Wher- 
ever I went, 'Long live Sobieski!' ' Sobieski forever!' 'Huzza!' sounded on all 
sides. Mothers and children ran to touch me ; old men covered my hands with 
kisses; and those who could not get through the crowd, waved their hats or hand- 
kerchiefs, shouting with one voice, ' God save thee, Sobieski!' 'Welcome, Sobieski: ' 
'Huzza! ' ""—Letter of Sobieski to his Wife. 



684 Modern History, 



71. The conquest of Egypt and the invasion of Syria by 
Napoleon have ah-eady been referred to. By the aid of the 
British, the lost territories were regained. One 
of the most interesting events since that time, was 



Later events. 



the successf 111 insurrection of the Greeks, whose independence 
was secured by the battle of Navarino (1827). The wars 
waged with the rebellious Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali 
{ma'hem-et ah'le), still further reduced the strength of the 
empire. This contest was terminated in 1841, by the surren- 
der of the government of Egypt to Mehemet Ali, he being 
made an hereditary ruler. One of his successors, Ismail {is- 
mah-eeV) Pasha, obtained from the sultan in 1867 the hered- 
itary title of hhedive (viceroy). 

72. Eussia has repeatedly taken advantage of the weakness 
of the Ottoman Empire to attempt its spoliation. In the 
Crimean War Turkey was successfully aided by 
Great Britain and France in opposing the schemes 



Russian attacks. 



of conquest of Nicholas; and by the treaty of Paris it regained 
a portion of territory north of the Danube. In the Eastern 
War of 1877-8, the Turkish forces were unsuc- 
cessful in opposing the Russian armies; and the 



Eastern War. 



empire suffered a great loss of territory by the Treaty of 
Berlin, negotiated under the influence and direction of the 
leading powers of Europe, a congress of whose representatives 
met in that city. By this treaty Turkey was obliged to con- 
sent to the formation of the principalities of Bul- 
garia and Servia, with the partial indei^endence 



Result. 



of East Rume'lia, Bos'nia, and Herzegovi'na, the government 
of the last two to be administered by Austria-Hungary. In 
1859 the Turkish dependencies Moldavia and Wallachia were 
united, and a principality formed from them, to which the 
name of Roumania was given. The independence of this state 
was acknowledged by the sultan of Turkey in 1861. Rouma- 
nia subsequently assumed the rank and dignity of a kingdom 
(1881). 



Greece. 635 



SECTION XII. 

Greece. 

73. Fi*om the ciq^ture of Constantinople (1453) until ii 
recent date, Greece was under the Mohammedan yoke, which 
was made galling and oppressive to the last degree 
by the brutal and fanatical Turks. In 1820, the 



Turkish rule. 



Greeks determined to make a struggle for their independence; 
and Mav-ro-cor-da'to was proclaimed president. His most 
celebrated compeer in the dreadful contest that ensued was 
Marco Bozzaris {bot'sali-ris), called, sometimes, 
the ^^Leonidas of Modern Greece." This heroic 
chief perished in a night-attack upon the Turkish 



War for 
ndependence. 



camp (1823), near Missolonghi, one of the chief centers of the 
insurrection. This place also derives a mournful interest 
from the death of Lord Byron, who died there of a fever, 
occasioned by his earnest efforts in behalf of Greece (1824). 

74. The fall of this place, after a long siege, in which its 
brave defenders suffered the most dreadful hardships from 
famine, and which was closed by their captivity, 
aroused the sympathy of Europe; and England, 



European aid. 



France, and Eussia formed a league to assist the brave Greeks 
in their unequal contest. The combined fleets of the allies 
entirely destroyed ihQ Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the 
harbor of Navarino (October 20, 1827). After 
this victory. Count Capo d'Istria, a native of the 



Navarino, 



island of Corfu, was formally installed as President of Greece. 
Its independence was formally acknowledged by the Turkish 
sultan in 1829. 

75. Made a separate kingdom by the allied powers, its first 
king was Otho, a Bavarian prince (1832). His reign was 
somewhat troubled, by the discontent of his sub- 
jects with his German officials and foreign troops. 



Otho. 



and by Russian intrigues for the purpose of involving the 



636 Modern History. 



little kingdom m the insurrections of the neighboring prov- 
inces against Turkey. A successful revolution broke out in 
Athens in 1862; and Otho having abdicated, was 
succeeded the following year by Prince George of 



George I. 



Denmark, with the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. 



SECTION XIII. 

Progress of Civilization i^ Moderist Europe. 

76. Modern history commences at the epoch at which the 
dawn of intelligence broke upon Europe. In the latter part 
of the fifteenth century the civilization of the 
Greek Empire had disappeared before the con- 



Modem epoch. 



quering arms of the rude and ferocious Ottomans, and the 
western nations, emerging from the night of mediaeval igno- 
rance, began to glow with the first beams of that intellectual 
and social illumination to which tliey have attained. Litera- 
ture, science, and art, at this auspicious era, sprang into 
active life; and the human mind, shaking off the chains of 
feudal barbarism, began its career of activity and freedom. 

77. After the destruction of the feudal system, the masses 
were gradually released from the degrading condition of serf- 
dom, and acquired a share in the establishment 
of civil and political institutions. Science soon 



Changes. 



began its wonderful reformation. The comforts and con- 
veniences of life were constantly increased ; the modes of 
warfare were revolutionized by the use of firearms;* the 
mariner's compass made ocean navigation possible, and the 
application of steam, at a later period, facilitated it; while 

* The process of making granulated gunpowder was invented by Schumrtz in 
1320, and immediately thereafter almost every state commenced the use of cannon 
of small size. In 1346, Edward III. used them at Crecy Plated armor could then 
no longer protect the feudal tyrant against the weapon of the oppressed peasant. 



Cimlizatioii in Modern Europe. 637 

extended commerce gave an impulse to explonition and dis- 
covery. The invention of printing gave to the modern Avorld 
the intellectual riches of the ancients, and literature com- 
menced its magnilicent career. The later application of elec- 
tricity to the telegraph has brought the ends of the earth into 
rapid communication with each other. 

78. The maritime enterprises of the Portuguese in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries gave them great commercial 
influence, especially in the trade of the East 
Indies; but they found at a later period a success- 
ful rival in the Dutch. The celebrated Dutch 



Maritime 
enterprise. 



East India Company was chartered in 1602, and through it 
the rival cities of the Netherlands united their interests and 
efforts.* Its center was at Batavia, called the "'^ Pearl of the 
East," which at the close of the seventh century had reached 
a population of 160,000. The conflicts between the Dutch 
and the Portuguese resulted in the supremacy of the former, 
whose colonies soon became numerous and important. The 
French also established a company in the East India trade, 
besides which there was a Danish East India Company in the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The English comi^any, 
to which reference has already been made, acquired its great- 
est power in the eighteenth century. Companies were also 
organized for the West India trade. 

79. Spain and Portugal for more than a century enjoyed 
a monopoly of the treasure and merchandise obtained from 
India and the New World. The Spanish colonies 
in Central and South America and in the West 



Colonies. 



Indies, and the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, were a 
source of vast wealth; but by folly, indolence, bigotry, and 

* "The naval and military power of the Dutch East India Companj' became at 
last enormous. .Of ships of war carr}nng from twenty to sixty guns, they had, 
when powerful, one hundred and fifty, besides fifty smaller vessels, and an army 
of corresponding magnitude. The States General had from time to time to sub- 
sidize the Company in order to enable the directors to carry on their wars."— 
Yeats' s Orotvth and Vicissitudes of Commerce. 



638 Modern History. 



a thirst for gold and silver, tlie best fruits of these possessions 
were lost; and the maritime influence and glorj of the Penin- 
sula, gained in the sixteenth century, was swept away in the 
next by Dutch enterprise and vigor. Holland, in its turn, 
yielded to English ascendency at a later period. 

80. The wonderful commercial revival of the sixteenth 
century brought many changes — many new elements charac- 
teristic of modern civilization. Communication 
aud corres|)ondence became by degrees more easy 



Improvements. 



and rapid, by the construction of canals and military roads; 
systems of commercial credit and exchange were established, 
as at Antwerp, London, and Amsterdam; great fairs for 
trading purposes were hold at different places, particularly at 
Brunswick and Leipsic;* and banks, insurance companies, 
and post-offices were founded in large numbers. 

81. Progress in the industrial arts was greatly stimulated 
by this increased commercial activity. In these very great 
progress has been made in all civilized countries 
during the last three centuries. This is seen in 



Industrial arts. 



the improvements made in agriculture, in every kind of 
manufacturing industry, in mining, in the invention and use 
of labor-saving machinery, — particularly in that for the mak- 
ing of textile fabrics. The proce&ses of spinning and weaving 
were at first simple, crude, and tedious, the instruments used 
being the spindle and distaff, and then the spinning-wheel; 
while weaving was dependent on the loom and shuttle, and 
embroidery was executed by hand. 

82. With these simj^le means, however, weaving had 
reached, before the sixteenth century, a high degree of per- 
fection, especially in Flanders, France, and Italy, and in the 
cities of Brussels, Antwerp, Bruges, Valenciennes {vali-long- 

* In more recent times such fairs have been held in various parts of the world, 
and many are still maintained, Nizhni Novgorod, on the Volga River, is still the 
center of a vast trade ; and annual fairs are now held there, at some of which as 
many as 200,000 traders are gathei-ed. The fairs at Leipsic, Brmaswick, and Frank- 
fort are still very large and important. 



Civilization in Modern Ewrope. 689 

se-en^), Ar'ras, Genoa, and Florence. Tapestry-weaving dis- 
played the highest perfection of artistic excellence; and vast 
sums were given for the rich products of this skill. The silk 
velvets of Genoa were especially esteemed. Stock- 
ing-knitting was introduced in the first ])art of 
the sixteenth century;* and the invention of lace- 



Weaving and 
knitting. 



knitting is ascribed to a Saxon matron in the same century. 
The stocking-loom was also invented about the same time. 
Cotton fabrics were made in Italy and Spain -in the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries. The invention of the Jacquard loom 
in 1801, by a silk-weaver of Lyons, introduced an important 
improvement in silk manufacture, f 

83. In tlie fine arts, — music, painting, and sculpture, — the 
achievements of modern times show the highest gifts of genius 
as well as perfection of skill. In music this is 
particularly the case, for the j^rogress made in 



Fine arts. 



the last three centuries exceeds that of every other period in 
history. This is seen not only in the works of eminent com- 
posers, but in the invention of musical instru- 
ments, and in the advancement of music as a 



Music. 



science. New forms of musical composition, as the oratorio 
and the opera, have sprung into existence during this period. 
The composers of great musical genius are very numerous, 
particularly those of Germany and Italy. Only a few can be 
referred to. 

84. Among German composers may be mentioned: 
Bach,t John Sebastian (1685-1750), deemed by some the greatest musician 

tliat ever lived. 
Gluck (1714-1787), the composer of many great operas. 

* Previors to the invention of close knitting, about 1517, in Spain, or as some 
contend in Scotland, coverings for the legs were made of woven cloth or leather. 
The greater convenience of knit hose was soon recognized, though for a long time 
the custom of wearing cloth legarings was persisted in. 

t By this invention of Jacquard, silks of the most beautiful fancy patterns could 
be woven as readily as plain silks. This innovation received much opposition at 
first from the workmen, but soon became universal. 

X For the pronunciation of all these proper names, see the Index. 



640 



Modern History. 



Haydn (1733-1809), especially noted for his symphonies; but his most 

. . popular works are the oratorio of the Creation and 

his cantata the Seasons. 
Mozart (1756-1791), perhaps the greatest musical genius 
that ever lived, and a perfect master of the art. He 
excelled in every species of composition, but his masterpieces are 



German 
composers. 




Beethoven. 



his operas and symphonies. 
Beethoven (1770-1827), one of the greatest of modern composers. His 
symphonies and his opera of Fidelio are his principal works. 

l^eber (1786-1826), composer of the 
popular operas Der Freischutz and 
Oheron, with many other works. 
Schubert (1797-1828), a writer of almost 
every kind of musical composi- 
tion, but especially noted for his 
songs. 
Mendelssohn (1809-1847), composer of 
the oratorios Elijah and St. Paul, 
with several well-known sympho- 
nies, and many other works of 
merit. 
Meyerbeer (1794-1864), author of sev- 
eral grand operas, of which Robert 
le Diahle, the Huguenots, and the Prophet are the best known. 
Schumann (1810-1856), noted for his symphonies and his songs. 
"Wagner (born 1813), the greatest living composer; author of the grand 
operas — musical dramas — Tannhiluser, Lohengrin, the Meistersinger, 
and other works of extraordinary merit. 

85. Among Italian composers may be mentioned: 

Stradella (1645-1678), noted as a singer, violinist, and composer. 
Piccini (1728-1800), the composer of many operas. 
Cimarosa (1750-1801). a musician of great genius; he com- 
posed a large number of operas and other works. 
Rossini (1792-1868), one of the greatest of composers. 
Many of his operas are very popular. 
Donizetti (1798-1848), author of many popular operas. 
Bellini (1802-1835), a very celebrated composer; his operas Norma 

Somnamhula, and the Puritans are very popular. 
Verdi (born 1814), noted for his numerous operas, 



Italian 
composers. 



Civilization in Modern Eurojpe. 641 

To these may be added the noted French composers Auber 
(1782-1871) and Gounod (born 1818), both of 
whom have written several popnhir operas; and 
Berlioz (1803-1869), one of the greatest of modern 



Other 
composers. 



composers. While some of the other countries of Europe 
have produced a few eminent composers, Italy and Germany, 
as already stated, have far surpassed them all. 

86. Painting had its greatest representatives in the age 
just succeeding and connected with the mediaeval period, 
which was illumined by the genius of Leonardo 
da Vinci in Italy and Albert Durer in Germany. 



Painting, 



The greatest artists of that age were Michael Angelo, Raphael, 
and Titian in Italy, and Quentin Matsys and Louis Kranach 
in Germany, the latter a personal friend of Luther. In more 
decidedly modern times, the Italian school includes a host of 
luminaries, such as Correggio, the three Caraccis of Bologna, 
Salvator Rosa, and Carlo Dolci. These all belong to the sev- 
enteenth century; and have but few successors of great merit 
in later times. Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, and 
many others of the Flemish and Dutch schools were their con- 
temporaries; and the Spanish and French schools contained 
several others of kindred genius and merit. Velasquez (1599- 
1660) and Murillo (1618-1682) are the special pride of Spanish 
art. Sculpture has its greatest representatives 
in the Italians Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1570), 



Sculpture. 



Antonio Canova (1757-1822), and the Danish artist Thor- 
waldsen (1770-1844), whose chief works were executed in 
Rome; but a host of others have achieved distinction in this 
branch of art. 

87. Science in each of its departments has been extended 
by the efforts of men of various nationalities. Only a few of 
the great names can be given in this brief sketch, 
in addition to those alreadv referred to in the 



histories of England and France. Among the distinguished 
mathematicians may be specially mentioned; 



642 



Modern History, 



Cardan (1501-1576), au Italian, a man of wonderful genius, but noted 
for his eccentricities. 



Mathematicians. Napier (1550-1617), a Scotchman, the inventor of loga- 

rithms. 
Leibnitz (1646-1716), a German, not only eminent as a mathematician 

(claimiug against Newton the invention of fluxions), but in almost 

every other department of science and philosophy. 
Euler (1707-1783), born in Switzerland, one of the greatest masters of 

mathematical science. 

88. In astronomy the following persons have distinguished 
themselves for important discoveries: 

Copernicus (1473-1543), a German, the reviver of the true theory of the 
solar system, which places the sun in the center, in 



Asvonomers. opposition to the systcm of Ptolemy, which conceived 

the earth to be the center of the universe. 
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), a Dane, noted for the vast number of facts he 

collected at his great observatory 
in Copenhagen, and for his theory 
of the solar system, called the 
Tychonic System. 
Galileo (1564-1642), the illustrious 
Italian physicist, who, improving 
upon the telescope previously in- 
vented in Holland, discovered the 
spots on the sun and the four 
satellites of Jupiter. He also as- 
serted the rotation of the earth, in 
opposition to the prevailing notion 
that the earth is fixed in the center 
of the universe, Galileo also dis- 
covered the value of the pendulum in the construction of clocks. 
Kepler (1571-1630), a German astronomer, the illustrious discoverer of 

the great laws of planetary motion. 
Huyghens (or Huygens) (1629-1695), a Dutch astronomer, the discoverer 

of Saturn's ring and one of its satellites. 
Cassini (1625-1712), an Italian, discovered four satellites of Saturn, and 
made other important discoveries in relation to several of the planets. 
His son, James Cassini, discovered the divisions in Saturn's ring. 

Other noted astronomers of the period have been mentioned 
in connection with English and French history. 




Copernicus. 



Civilization in Modern Euroije. 643 

89. There are many other renowned discoverers and 
writers within the domain of physical science 
and natural history, among whom we may men- 
tion : 



Discoverers and 
writers. 



Torricelli (1608-1647), an Italian, the inventor of the barometer. 

Guericke (1602-1686), a German, the inventor of tlie air-pump. 

Fahrenheit (1690-1736), a Hollander, who invented the mercurial ther- 
mometer that bears his name. 

Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist, the author of the artificial or 
Linna^an system of botany. 

Haller (1708-1777), sometimes called the "Father of Physiology;" one 
of the world's great physicians. His writings are very numerous. 

Galvani (1737-1798), an Italian, the discoverer of galvanism. 

Volta (1745-1827), an Italian, the inventor of the voltaic pile or battery. 

Dr. Gall (1758-1828), a German, the founder of phrenology. 

Mesmer (1734-1815), the discoverer of animal magnetism, or mesmerism. 

Lavater (1741-1801), the famous writer on Physiognouiy. 

Dr. Hahnemann (1755-1843), a German, the originator of homeopathy, 

Humboldt (1769-1859), the illustrious German natural philosopher, noted 
for his deep an 1 wide researches into tlie laws of the physical uni- 
verse, explained in his great work called Kosmos. 

Oersted (1777-1851), a Dane, who discovered the identity of magnetism 
and electricity. 

Liehig (1803-1873), a celebrated German chemist, and writer on agri- 
cultural and physiological chemistry. 

90. The literary history of Europe during the period of 
modern history is enriched with the productions 
of every department of genius. In a rapid glance 



the mind rests upon only a few of the most conspicuous in 
this vast field. The prominent characters in French and 
English literature have been already presented, 
and a brief summary of the great names in the 



Great names. 



literature of other countries. Among the writers of the six- 
teenth century may particularly be mentioned 
the following: 

Erasmus (1467-1536), a celebrated Dutch scholar and phi- 
losopher, one of the restorers of ancient learning, at the head of the 
literary world in his age. 



Sixteenth 
century. 



644 



Modern History. 



Scaliger (1484^1558), an Italian philologist, one of the most famous 

scholars and writers of his time. 
Tasso (1544-1595), an Italian poet, noted for his great poem Jerusalem 

Delivered, founded on the First Crusade. 
Camoens (1524-1579), the only eminent Portuguese poet. His great 

poem the Lusiad celebrates the naval exploits of the Portuguese. 
Cervantes (1547-1616), the noted Spanish writer, author of the famous 

satirical novel Don Quixote. 
Vega, Lope de (1562-1635), a Spanish dramatist, who wrote a vast num- 

ber of popular phiys, some of very great merit. 

91. Of the writers of the seventeenth century, the follow- 
ing deserve to be especially mentioned: 

Quevedo (1580-1645), a Spanish author of great fame, noted for his 
critical and political writings. 
Grotius, Hugo (1583-1645), an eminent Dutch jurist, 
theologian, and writer. He was a profound and 
versatile scholar as well as writer. One of his best 



Seventeenth 
century. 



known works is a treatise On the Truth of the Christian Religion. 

Calderon (de la Barca) (1600-1681), a 
noted Spanish dramatist. 

Spinoza (1632-1677), born in Amster- 
dam, of Hebrew extraction; one 
of the most celebrated speculative 
philosophers of his age; his writ- 
ings are skeptical or atheistical. 

Salvator Rosa (1615-1673), illustrious 
as a painter and a poet. He has 
been called by some the Juvenal 
of Italy. 

Muratori (1672-1750), one of the most 
c, noted historical writers of Italy. 

92. From the vast host of writers of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, we may particularize the following: 

Swedenborg (1688-1772), born in Sweden, one of the most prolific 
writers on various scientific subjects, but cliiefly 
known for his chums to a new and special revelation, 
on which the Church of the New Jerusalem is found- 
ed. 

Mosheim (1694-1755), celebrat-ed as the author of an Ecclesiastical 




Eighteenth 
century. 



Oimlization in Modern Europe. 645 

History, which for many years was the chief standard upon that 

subject. 
Metastasio (1698-1782), the most ilhistrious of modern Italian poets. He 

wrote operas, oratorios, sonnets, and miscellaneous poems. 
Klopstock (1708-1803), a noted German poet. His great work is an epic 

poem called Hie Messiah. 
Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804), one of the most celebrated of German 

metaphysicians. 
Lessing (1729-1781), a celebrated German poet and dramatist. 
Wieland (1733-1813), a noted German poet and novelist. 
Heyne (1729-1812), an illustrious German scholar and critic. His edi- 
tions of the classical writers are highly esteemed. 
Schiller (1759-1805), one of the most illustrious of German poets. His 

dramas Wallenstein, Mary Stuart, William Tell, and the Robbers are 

among his greatest works. He also 

wrote a Uistory of the Thirty Tears' 

War. 
Herder (1744-1803), one of the most 

gifted and versatile of German writ- 
ers. His works are critical and phil- 
osophical. 
Alfieri (1749-1803), the most celebrated 

Italian poet of the century. He 

wrote many tragedies of singular 

merit, and many miscellaneous 

poems. His character and genius 

resembled those of Lord Byron, to 

whom he has been often compared. 
Pestalozzi (1746-1827), one of the most celebrated teachers and writers 

upon education in his age. His great work was the development of 

the system of object-teaching. 

93. The nineteenth century has been exceedingly prolific 
in men of genius. Its chief characteristic has 
been intellectual activity in every department of 
literature and science. To the names already given 




Nineteenth 
century. 



in connection with France and England we add the following: 

Richter, John Paul (1763-1825), a German writer of great eminence; his 

style is very beautiful, and his works are noted for their humor, 

originality, and pathos. jNIost of his writings have been translated 

into En2:lish and other lan<2:ua2:es. 



646 . Modern History. 



Fichte (1762-1814), a noted German metaphysician. He was distin- 
guished more for his lectures than his writings. His system of phi- 
losopliy is known as "idealism." 
Hegel (1770-1831), one of the most distinguished thinkers and writers 
of the German school of philosophy, — the founder of a new school 
of speculativa doctrine, 
Schelling (1775-1854), a German philosopher, one of the four great 
representatives of the speculative philosophy of Germany — Kant, 
Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, all of whom were contemporary. 
Goethe (1749-1832), the greatest name in German literature. Goethe 

was remarkable both as a poet and 
a prose writer. His drama called 
Faust is a wonderful w^ork of gen- 
ius. Among his most popular prose 
writings are The Sorroics of Wer- 
ther and Wilhelm Meisier. 
Froebel (1782-1852), a noted educator; 
the founder of the famous Kinder- 
garten system of elementary in- 
struction. 
Niebuhr (1776-1831), a German histo- 
rian, whose researches into the his- 
tory of Rome have made his name 
Goethe. .,, ^ . 

illustrious. 

Neander (1789-1850), a German church historian. His great work, a 

General History of the Christian Religion and Church, is a standard. 
Heine (1799-1856), one of the most distinguished of German poets. 
Pushkin (1799-1837), a Russian lyric poet of negro descent; regarded 

by the Russians as their greatest poet, called sometimes the " Byron 

of Russia." 
Lermontoff (1814-1841), a native of Russia, called the " Russian Schiller," 

on account of his poetical genius. 
Bremer, Frederika (1801-1866), a celebrated Swedish novelist. Her 

translated works are very popular in the United States and England. 
Andersen, Hans Christian (1805-1875), a Danish writer of remarkable 

genius, chiefly noted for his juvenile works of fiction. 
Mommsen (born 1817), a German historian, particularly noted for his 

History of Rome, which has been translated into English. 
Curtius, Ernst (born 1814), a celebrated German historian. His great 

work the History of Greece has been translated into English. His 

other works treat of the antiquities of Greece. 




Review Outline. 



647 



Review Outline. 



GREAT EVENTS. 



Sixteenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with : 

(1) The Rise of Protestantism, in the reign of Charles V. (1519-56). 

(2) The English Reformation, in the reigns of Henry VIII. (1509-47), 

Edward VI. (1547-53), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). 

(3) The Rise of the Dutch Republic, in the reign of Philip II. (1555-98). 

(4) The Religious Wars in France, in the reigns of Charles IX. 

(1560-74), Henry III. (1574-89), and Henry IV. (till 1590). 

(5) The Ottoman Military Enterprises, under Bajazet II. (1481-1512), 

Selim I. (1512-20), and Solyman II. (1.520-56). 

(6) The Portuguese Maritime Enterprises, in the reign of Emanuel 

the Fortunate (1495-1521). 

(1) Rise of Protestantism. 

Luther published his theses against Catholic tenets. 

Luther at the Diet at Worms. 

The Lutherans protest at Spire. Called Protestants. 

The League of the Protestants at Smalcald. 

Council of Trent opened. Closed 1563. 

Frederick of Saxony defeated at Miihlberg. 

Death of Martin Luther. 

Treaty of Passau between Charles V. and Maurice. 

Peace of Augsburg. Religious freedom granted to the Protestants. 

(2) English Reformation. (See England.) 

(3) Rise of the Dutch Republic. 

Revolt of several of the Provinces under William the Silent, Stadtholder. 
Union of the Seven Provinces. Foundation of the Republic. 
Independence of the United Provinces proclaimed. 
Death of William the Silent by assassination. 

(4) Religious "Wars in France. (See France.) 

(5) Ottoman Military Enterprises. 

Accession of Solyman the Magnificent. Zenith of Turkish power. 

Belgrade, the Servian capital, taken by the Ottomans. 

The island of Rhodes taken by Solyman. 

Solyman's army repulsed at Vienna after a long siege. 

Second repulse of the Ottomans at Vienna. 

Unsuccessful attack of the Ottomans upon Malta. 

Great naval defeat of the Ottomans at Lepanto. 

(6) Portuguese Maritime Enterprises. 
Brazil accidentally discovered by Cabral. 
Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci to the coast of Brazil. 
Ceylon visited and partly conquered by the Portuguese. 
Conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese. 

The Japan Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 



648 Modern History. 



Seventeenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected 
with: 

(1) The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). 

(2) The Great Civil "War in England (1642-1651). 

(3) The Age of Louis XIV. in France (1643-1715). 

(4) The Rise of Russia under Peter the Great (168^1725). 

(5) The Turkish Wars. 

(6) The Maritime Power of the Dutch. 

(1) Thirty Years' War. 

Frederick, Elector Palatine, defeated near Prague. 

Dreadful persecution of the Bohemian Protestants. 

League of the North German states, under Christian IV. of Denmark. 

Treaty of peace between Denmark and Germany. 

Defeat of Tilly by Gustavus Adolphus near Leipsic. 

Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. 

Assassination of Wallenstein. 

French intervention in the war, under Richelieu. 

Death of the emperor Ferdinand II. 

Peace of Westphalia. Protestant independence established. 

(2) Great Civil War in England. (See England.) 

(3) Age of Louis XIV. (See France.) 

(4) Rise of Russia. 

Visit of Peter the Great to England and other countries of Eiirope. 

(5) Turkish Wars. 

The Ottomans repulsed at Vienna by John Sobieski. 

Splendid victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at Zenta. 

Treaty of peace with the Turks. Hungarian possessions given back. 

(6) Maritime Power of the Dutch. (See En(J!Land and France.) 

Eighteenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with: 

(1) England under the Georges (1714-1815). 

(2) Prussia under Frederick the Great (1740-86). 

(3) Russian Military Operations (under Peter the Great and the 

Catharines). 

(4) Decline and Fall of Poland. 

(5) Decline and Fall of the French Government. 

(1) England under the Georges. (See England.) 

(2) Prussia under Frederick the Great. 
Invasion of Silesia by Frederick the Great. 

Capture of Dresden by the Prussians. Treaty of peace. 

Victories of Frederick the Great over the French, Austrians, and Russians. 

Treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia. 

(3) Russian Military Operations. 

Defeat of Peter the Great by Charles XII. of Sweden at Narva. 
Capital of Russia removed from Moscow to St. Petersburg. 
Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. 
Victory of Peter the Great over Charles XII. at Poltava. 



Remew Outline. 



049 



Accession of Catharine I., empress of Russia. Menschikoff minister. 
Accession of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine. 
Accession of Catharine II. Poteuikin minister. 
Defeat of the Russians at Zorndorf by Frederick the Great. 

(4) Decline and Fall of Poland, 
First Partition of Poland. 

Second Partition of Poland. 

Defeat of the Poles under Kosciusko by Suvaroff. 

Third Partition of Poland. 

(5) Decline and Fall of the French Government. (See France.) 

Nineteenth Century.— The great events of this centmy are connected 
with: 

(1) The Career of Napoleon. (See France.) 

(2) The Progress of Liberalism in England. (See England.) 

(3) The Aggressions of Russia. 

(4) The Growth of Prussia under Bismarck. 

(5) The Unification of Italy, under Victor Emanuel. 

(6) The Decline of Turkish Power in Europe (Eastern Question). 

(3) Aggressions of Russia. 
Poland absoi'bed in the Russian Empire. 

Crimean War. Sebastopol taken by the French and English. 
Defeat and overthrow of Shamyl in the Caucasus. 
Russian conquests in Central Asia. 
The Eastern War— between Russia and Turkey. 

(4) Growth of Prussia under William I. (1861). 
Bismarck prime minister of William I. of Prussia. 
Schleswig and Holstein occupied by Prussia and Austria. 
Holstein invaded and occupied by Prussian troops. 
Austro-Prussian War, called the Seven Weeks' War. 
Severe defeat of the Austrians at Sadowa. 

North German Confederation, under the headship of Prussia. 
The Prussian victories in the Franco-Prussian war. 
Paris entered by the Germans. 
William I. made emperor of Germany. 

(5) TTnification of Italy. 

Accession of Victor Emanuel to the throne of Sardinia. 

Victories of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples. 

Victor Emanuel elected king of Italy. 

Rome entered by Victor Emanuel, and made the capital of Italy. 

Death of Victor Emanuel. Accession of Humbert I. 

(6) Decline of the Turkish Power. 

Insiu'rection of the Greeks. Mavrocordato president. 

Death of Marco Bozzaris, the Greek patriot and general. 

The Turkish fleet defeated at Navarino. 

The independence of Greece acknowledged by the Turkish sultan 

Ismail Pasha hereditary viceroy (khedive) of Egypt. 

Turkish armies defeated by the Russians. 

Treaty of Berlin. Partial dismemberment of Turkey. 



650 



Contemporaneous Events. 



A.D. 


England. 


France, 


Other Countries. 


1483 
1485 
1493 
1498 
1509 
1515 
1519 
15^0 




Charles VIH. 




Henry VII. 


Maximilian of Germany. 




Louis XII. 
Francis I. 


Henry VIII. 













Solyman the Magnificent. 
Treaty of Passau. 
Philip II. of Spain. 


1547 
1552 


EdwardVI. 


Henry II. 


1553 
1556 


Mary. 




1558 
1559 


Elizabeth. 


Francis II. 
Charles IX. 


15fiO 






1571 




Battle of Lepanto. 


1574 




Henry IH. 


15'^9 




William the Silent 


158P 




Henry IV. 

Louis XIII 




1603 
1610 


James I. 


Moors expelled from Spain 
Thirty Years' W^r begins. 

Battle of Lutzen. 


1618 






1625 
163-:^ 


Charles I. 




1640 






Portugal independent. 


1643 




Louis XIV. 


1648 




Peace of Westphalia. 
Sobieski defeats the Turks. 


1653 
1660 
1683 


Cromwell, Protector. 
Charles II. 




1685 
1689 
1700 


James II. 
William and Mary. 




Battle of Narva. 


1702 
1709 


Anne. 




Battle of Poltava. 


1714 
1715 


George I. 


Louis XV. 




1718 




Death of Charles XII. 


1727 
1740 


George II. 




Frederick the Great. 


1760 

1774 


George III. 


Louis XVI. 
French Revolution. 




1789 






1795 




Third Partition of Poland. 


1799 




Napoleon First Consul. 
Napoleon Emperor. 




1804 






1806 




End of German Empire. 


1814 




Louis xvni. 

Charles X. 


1820 
18'?4 


George IV. 




18'?5 




Brazil independent. 


18t?7 






1830 


William iv 


Louis Philippe. 




1833 




Isabella of Spain. 


1837 
1848 


Victoria. 


Louis Philippe dethroned. 


1849 




Victor Emanuel. 


1853 




Napoleon III. 




1855 






1859 






Battle of Solferino. 


1861 






Russian serfs freed 


1870 




Battle of Sedan 

Thiers, President 

McMahon, President. 


Rome capital of Italy. 
William, German emperor. 


1871 




1873 




1878 




Treaty of Berlin. 


1879 




Grevy, President. 



Topical Review, 



651 



Emperors of Germany, 

From Maximiljan I. (1493) to the Close of the Empire (1806). 



Name. Date of Reign. 

Maximilian I 1493-1519 

Charles V 1519-1556 

Ferdinand I ... 1556-1564 

Maximilian 11 1564-1576 

Rudolf II 1576-1612 

Matthias 1612-1619 

Ferdinand n . , 1619-1637 



Name. Date of Reign. 

Ferdinand III 1637-1657 

Leopold 1 1658-1705 

Cliarles VI 171 1-1740 

Maria Theresa and Francis I . . 1740-1780 

Joseph II 1780-1790 

Leopold II 1790-1792 

Francis 11 1792-1806 



Topical Review. 



NOTED PERSONAGES. 

Who tvere they? 
For what noted? 

PAGE 

Martin Luther 599, 600, 601 

Frederick of Saxony 599, 601 

Maurice of Saxony 601 

Tilly 602, 603 

Wallenstein 602, 603 

Gustavus Adolphus 603, 622 

John Sobieski 604, 626, 633 

Prince Eugene 604 

Maria Theresa 605, 611 

Frederick the Great 605, 611, 612 

Bismarck 606, 607 

Kossuth 608 

William the Silent 612, 613 

Melanchthon 6C0, 614 

William the Great Elector 609 

John Calvin 614 

Zwingli 614 

Charles Albert 615 

Joseph Garibaldi 615 

Victor Emanuel 615, 616 

Cardinal Ximenes 616 

Vasco da Gama 619 

Gustavus Vasa 622 

Charles XII. of Sweden .... 623, 628, 629 

Bernadotte 623 

Prince Poniatovrski 626 

Thaddeus Kosciusko 626 

Peter the Great 628 

Menshikoff 629 



PAGE 

General Suvaroff 629 

Solyman the Magnificent 632 

Mavrocordato 635 

Marco Bozzaris 635 

Count Capo dlstria 635 

NOTED EVENTS. 
When did they occur? 
WJiat led to them? 
Wliat resulted therefrom? 

Spread of Luther's tenets 599, 600 

Diet of Spire 600 

Confession of Augsburg 600 

Council of Trent 600 

Treaty of Passau 601 

Thirty Years' War 602, 614 

Battle of Lutzen 603 

Peace of Westphaha , 604 

Revolt of the Hungarians 608 

Battle of Zenta 604, 6.33 

Seven Years' War 607, 610 

Franco-German War 608 

Battle of Zorndorf 611 

Revolt of the Netherlands 612 

Union of Italy 615, 616 

Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. 618 
Independence of the Spanish Colo- 
nies 619 

Discovery of Brazil 619 

Battle of Poltava 623, 629 

Fall of Poland 626, 630 

Battle of Navarino 635 

Independence of Greece 635 



CHAPTER XII 

SUPPLEMEISTTARY. 

I. Asiatic States. 

1. China. The most important event in the modern history of China 
is the successful invasion of the empire by the Mantchou Tartars in the 
seventeenth century, followed (1644) by the overthrow of 



Tartar invasion, the reigning dynasty in favor of that which now occupies 

' the throne. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese 

began to trade with the Chinese; but the Dutch, who made repeated 
efforts to obtain admission into the ports of China, were 



Taiping 
rebellion. 



Foreign trade. Constantly rcpulsed ; though the Russians were permitted 
■ to trade in the empire as early as the middle of the six- 
teenth century. The British sought for some time for a similar per- 
mission, but obtained no encouragement until Lord Macartney's famous 
embassy (1793). The most important event in recent 
times was the famous Taiping rebellion, which broke out 
in 1850. It w^as both religious and political in its charac- 
ter; and before it was crushed, in 1864, the fairest prov- 
inces of the empire were laid waste, and an enormous number of lives 
sacrificed. 

2. Japan. The first notice of Japan by any European traveler or 
explorer was that made by Marco Polo, who during his travels in the 
East (see page 153) visited an island which he called 
Zipangu, of the riches of which he gave a glbwing 
account. The Portuguese some time afterward made a 
discovery of the island; and in 1549 it was visited by the far-famed 
missionary St. Francis Xavier, called the Apostle of the 
Indies; and many of the Japanese were converted to 
Christianity. In the seventeenth century, the Portu- 
guese were expelled from the empire, and the Christians were perse- 
cuted, a great massacre of them occurring in 1622. The 
Japanese trade was then transferred to the Dutch, who 
had a monopoly of it for more than two centuries, the 
ports of Japan being closed against all other foreign powers, 



Early accounts. 



Christianity. 



Foreign trade. 



Asiatic States. 653 



3. lu 1853, through the expedition of Commodore Perry, a treaty- 
was made between the United States and Japan, by which certain ports 
were opened to American trade; and in 1858 Townsend 
Harris, American consul-general to Japan, was enabled to 
reach Yedo (now Tokio) and to negotiate a still more 
favorable treaty. Other foreign powers soon obtained 



Treaty with the 
United States. 



similar privileges; and the Japanese, seeing the superiority of Ameri- 
can and European civilization, sent embassies to different countries, the 
first one visiting the United States in 1860. 

4. The empire was then ruled in a peculiar manner, the actual 
powers of government being in possession of an officer called the 
Shogun (commander-in-chief) or Tycoon (great sovereign), 



residing at Yedo, while the emperor, named Mikado, held Government. 

the title, and the symbols of authority and dignity at ' 

another place. This state of things was the result of a usurpation 
which took place in 1195 on the part of the shogun of that time. In 
1868 a revolution occurred by which the mikado was restored to his 
proper authority; and this was followed by a more liberal 



and enlightened policy in every respect, since which the Progress. 

empire has made wonderful progress in every element of 

modern civilization. Yokohama, a mere fishing village when Commo- 
dore Perry entered the bay with his squadron, is now a great commer- 
cial city of nearly 70,000 inhabitants. 

5. The civilization of Japan resembles that of the Chinese, as to 
manners and customs, language, and religion. The prevailing systems 
of the latter are Shintoism and Buddhism. The former 



is a kind of polytheism of a superior grade, the chief Civilization. 
feature being the worship of the spirits of ancestors ■ 
and departed heroes, to whom sacrifices are offered. The most prev- 
alent system, however, is Buddhism, as it has been for more than 
ten centuries, notwithstanding an attempt to uproot it, which was 
made shortly after the restoration of the mikado to his legitimate 
supremacy. 

6. India. At the commencement of the mediaeval history, the 
peninsula of Hiiidostan was divided into many small states, of the 
history of which little or nothing is known. In the early 
part of the eighth century the Mohammedan sovereigns 
of Persia, Afghanistan, and other states began their con- 
quests, which were continued for several centuries; and, ' 

at the commencement of the thirteenth, the greater portion of northern 
Hindostan was subjugated. Soon after this a great independent Mo- 



Mediaeval 
history. 



654: Modern History. 

hammedan empire was formed, having its capital at Delhi, which in 
the latter part of the century included all northern India. From this 
the Mohammedan dominions were gradually extended to the south, the 
whole of the Deccan soon being annexed. (See map, page 511.) 

7. Toward the end of the fourteenth century, the great and terrible 
invasion of Tamerlane occurred; and Delhi being captured was given 
over to massacre and pillage, the conqueror proclaiming 



Moguls. 



himself emperor of India. The restless warrior soon de- 
parted, however, leaving ruin and desolation in his track. 
In the sixteenth century commenced the rule of the Moguls (Mongols), 
founded by a descendant of the great Tamerlane, the most noted 
of whom was the famous Aurungzebe {o' rung-zahe) (1657-1707), who 
had an eventful reign of nearly fifty years. He was virtually the last 
Great Mogul; for after his deaih the empire fell to pieces, 
different provinces being held as independent states by 
military usurpers. Among these the Mahratta empire 
was the most important. About the middle of the 



English 
conquest. 



Changes in 
government. 



eighteenth century the French and English contended for mastery in 
India; and through the genius of Clive the latter gained the supremacy, 
which was afterward confirmed by the wonderful military and adminis- 
trative ability of Warren Hastings. (See England.) 

8. Persia. The defeat of Khosru by the emperor Heraclius has been 
referred to (page 17), as well as the destruction of the dynasty of the 

Sassanides by the Saracens, which soon ensued, the great 
victory which the latter gained at Cadesia, followed by 
another, five years later (641), determining the fate of that 
famous line of kings. The Persians were then compelled 
to embrace Mohammedanism; though a considerable number persisted 
in their ancient faith, in spite of bitter persecution. These were called 
Ouebres, or Ohebers (infidels), their descendants being the present rem- 
nant of the Parsees. (See Part I., pp. 79 and 80.) 

9. For two centuries Persia was under the sway of the Caliphs, till, 
in the ninth century, an adventurer named Soffar headed a revolt by 

which the Saracen government was overturned; and a 
dynasty of kings succeeded named after their founder 
the Sof-far'i-des, which was destroj^ed by the Seljuks, 
who conquered and ruled over Persia and Afghanistan. 
These in turn were subjugated by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, 
who established his empire in the twelfth century; but two centuries 
later it was overrun by Tamerlane. His death was followed by a long 
series of civil wars, which continued till the sixteenth century, when a 



Further 
changes. 



Asiatic States. (>oo 



succession of energetic monarclis held the throne, among them the 
renowned Abbas (1587-1638). 

10. In the eighteentli century Persia was conquered by the Afghans 
(1722); but they were soon afterward expelled by Nadir Shall (1736), 
who thus obtained the throne, which has ever since been 



Later history. 



occupied by his successors. After the death of this mon- 
arch, in 1747, Afghanistan became independent. During 
this period Persia has been engaged in wars with Russia (1813 and 1828), 
which resulted in the loss of Georgia and other frontier provinces; also, 
in a war with England (1856-7) in which the British troops under 
General Havelock gained several victories. The population, in recent 
years, has been reduced by dreadful famines (1860 and 1871-2), in the 
latter of which, it is said, more than two millions of people perished. 

11. Turkistan. In early times the western part of this region was 
known as Turania; and there were fierce and long-continued contests 
between the Turanians who occupied this country and 
the Iranians of the region farther south (Persia). Mon- 
golian invasions from the fourth to the tenth century 
changed considerably the character of the population. 
This country was ruled over successively by Genghis Khan and Timour 
or Tamerlane, and their successors.* Those of the hitter held sway 
until they were driven out by a tribe of Tartars called Uzbecks, who 
established a powerful monarchy that lasted about 160 years, when it 
was broken up mto several small states, or khanates, of which Bokara, 
Kliiva, and Khokan were the chief. Most of these have recently been 
conquered by Russia, which has thus extended its dominion over a 
large part of central Asia. 



Historical 
sketch. 



II. American States. 

[The events connected with the colonization of North America and the history 
of the United States are not presented here, as this branch of historj- is treated in 
text-books specially devoted to that subject, which in elementary schools usually 
precedes the study of general history.] 

NORTH AMERICA. 
12. Mexico and Central America. Previous to the discovery of Amer- 
ica by Columbus, this region was inhabited by a people called the 

* Tamerlane is a corruption of Timour Lenk, or Timour the Lame. This mighty 
warrior was born in 1336. He conceived the idea of reviving the empire of Genghis 
Khan, and after accomplishing this his restless ambition prompted him to other 



656 Modern History. 



Aztecs, who liad attained to a quite advanced state of civilization; 

and the ruins which still greet the traveler amid the overgrowing for- 
ests attest the genius, knowledge, and enterprise of this 
remarkable race. The great Aztec nation in Mexico was 
subjugated by a few Spaniards under the bold and un- 



scrupulous Cortez, and thus became a Spanish province (1521). It thus 
remained for three centuries, when it became an independent empire 
under a military adventurer (1822). After his fall a republic was 
established (1824). Owing to the restless ambition of its leaders, its 
government has been very unsettled. Among these the most noted was 
Santa Anna, conspicuous in the war between Mexico and the United 
States (1846-7). In 1864 Mexico was under the imperial government 
of the Austrian archduke Maximilian, but his government was over- 
turned by an insurrection under a Mexican leader, who 
caused the emperor to be shot (1867). The republic was 
then re-established. Central America was divided, in 
1823, into live states, created under the title of the 



Central 
America. 



"United States of Central America," but in 1839 the union was dis- 
solved, and the states became independent republics. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 
13. Brazil was discovered in 1500 by a Portuguese navigator named 
Cabral, who took possession of the country for the crown of Portugal, 
although the coast had been visited previously by one of 



Discovery. the Companions of Columbus. Settlements were after- 

ward made along the coast by the Portuguese, in whose 

possession the country continued until its independence was acknowl- 
edged in 1825. (See page 333). The Amazon River was first explored 
by a Spaniard, named Orellana {o-rel-yali'nah), in 1539. 

14. Peru. After Balboa had crossed the isthmus of Darien, in 1513, 
he turned to the southward and penetrated many miles into the country. 
Subsequently, Francisco Pi-zar'ro, a brave but cruel leader, 
who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, 
sailed from Panama with a company of less than 200 
men, and landed on the western coast of Peru— the wealthiest and 
most powerful state in America at the time of its discoveiy. By means 
of the basest treachery and the most revolting cruelties, Pizarro suc- 
ceeded in effecting the conquest of the country, although the unfor- 

conquests. His capital was Samarcand. He perished in an expedition across the 
Jaxartes, in 1405. His descendant Baber was the founder of the Mogul dynasty in 
India. 



American States. 657 



tunate natives defended their liberties with admirable spirit and valor 

(1533). The monster, Pizarro, was afterward assassinated (1541). After 

Pizarro's conquest Peru became the chief seat of the Spanish empire in 

America, and Lima ile'inah), its capital, rose to a very high degree of 

magnificence. It received from Pizarro the appellation of the City of 

the Kings. 

15. Chili, Venezuela, etc. — Chili, which originally belonged to the 

native Peruvian empire, was conquered by two of the 

successors of Pizarro, one of whom founded Santiago Chiii. 

- 
{sahn-te-ah' go) in 1541. Southern Chili was so bravely ■ 

defended by the Indians, that it resiste'd for centuries the rule of the 
invaders. Venezuela (ven-e-zwc' lah) was so called by 
Vespucci and Ojeda (o-ha'daJi), the latter one of the com- 
panions of Columbus, who, near the Lake of Maracaybo 



Colonies 
independent. 



(inah-rah-ki'bo), discovered an Indian village built on piles in the water. 

Hence, they named it Venezuela, or Little Venice (1499). 

The interior of the country was not conquered till the 

middle of the next century. The Rio de la Plata was 

explored in 1530, by Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of Spain; 

and, in 1580, the city of Buenos Ayres {bo'nus a'riz) was founded by the 

Spaniards. 

16. Thus, nearly all South America, except Brazil, fell into the 
possession of Spain, and was retained under her rule until the beginning 
of the present century, when, by a series of revolutions, 
commencing in Chili, this extensive region was wrested 
from her, and formed into independent states. Peru was 
the last to secure her independence, which was acknowl- 
edged in 1826. The most prominent individual connected with these 
movements was tlie patriot Bolivar, in honor of whom the republic of 
Bo-liv'i-a received its name. Nine states now occupy the territory for- 
merly included in the several Spanish viceroyalties of South America: 
Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador {ek-wah-dore'), Co-lom'bia, Venezuela, Chili, 
the Argentine Republic, Paraguay (pah-mh-gwi'), and Uruguay 
{oo-roo-gwi'). These states, since their formation, have been under 
republican governments, but have been very much disturbed by internal 
dissensions and civil war. Recently a war has been waged between 
Peru and Bolivia and Chili, in which the latter has gained several im- 
portant victories. Its armies now occupy tlie territories of the defeated 
republics, including the Peruvian capital Lima (1882). 



II^DEX 



General Rules for the Pronunciation of Greek and Latin Names.— The 
diacritical marks used are the same as those emi^loy ed in Webster's Dictionary ; 
and the pronunciation, when indicated, agrees with that authority. 

The sound of c before o, o, and u is the same as A;; before e, i, and y, the same 
as s. The sound of g is hard, as in go, before a, o, and u; and soft, like j, before e, 
i, and y. Quite general usage, however, in pronouncing Greek and Latin at present 
gives to c the uniform sound of A;, and to g the hard sound. 

Ch uniformly has the sound of k. S, when final and preceded by e, has the sound 
of z, and the e is long; thus es is pronounced eez as in Andes. 

Initial x has the sound of z; initial p before s and t, m and c before n, t before 
7)1, and ph before a mute consonant, are silent. 

T, s, and c before ia, ii, io, iu, and eu preceded immediately by the accent, are 
pronounced like sh; except when the t follows s, t, or z, or when the accent falls 
on the syllable ending with the letter i; as, Ae'tius = A-e'she-us, Milti'ades — Mil- 
ti'a-des. In the termination tion, t retains its proper sound. 



Ab'bas, king of Persia, 655. 

Abbasides {ab-bas' e-deez), 329. 

Abd-el Ka'der, 588. 

Ab'e-lard, 391. 

Ab-er-crom'by, Sir Ralph, 514. 

Aboukir (ah-boo-keer'), battle of, 578. 

A'bra-ham, 66. 

Abu-Bekr (ah'boo-bekr'), caliph, 326. 

Abyssinian War, 522. 

Academic School, 158. 

Ac-ar-na'ni-a, 85. 

Ac'cad, 28, 35. 

A-chae'an League, how and when 
formed, 130. 

A-chae'ans, their migrations and settle- 
ment, 89, 92, 93. 

Achaemenes (a-kem'e-nez), founder of 



the Persian monarchy, 74. 
Lcl 



Achaia {a-ka'yah), one of the Pelopon- 
nesian states, 85; twelve cities of, 131. 

Achaia, Roman province of, 133. 

Achilles (a-kU'lez), 89. 

Acre (ah'ker), 412, 416, 578. 

A-crop'o-lis, 106. 

Actium (ak'she-um), battle of, 243. 

Ad'di-son, 507. 

A-dol'phus, king of the Goths, 286; 
founds the kingdom of the "Visigoths, 
286. 

A-dri-an-o'ple, battle of, 284. 

Ad-ri-an-o'ple. 309, 458. 

Ad-ri-at'ic, wedding of the, 441. 

iE-gos-pot'a-mos, battle of. 111. 

^-mil-i-a'nus, emperor, 288. 

-^-mil'i-us, Roman consul, 210. 



-iEmilius Paulus, completes the conquest 
of Macedonia, 215. 

^-ne'id, plot of, 182. 

^-ne'as, Trojan prince, 184. 

uE-o'li-ans, migrations of, 86, 89, 95. 

-^il'qui-ans, defeated by Cincinuatus, 194. 

^schines (es'ke-uez), Athenian orator, 
160. 

^schylus (es'ke-lus), the founder of 
Greek tragic poetry, 156. 

^s-cu-la'pi-us, 1.50. 

A-e'tius {-she-us\ defeats the Huns, 287. 

^-to'li-a, 85. 

^tolian League, its formation, 131. 

iEtolians, riigration of, 92. 

Af-ghan-is-tan', English driven from, 519; 
English war in, 523; history of, 6.55. 

Af ri-ca, Roman province of, 217. 

Ag-a-mem'non, king of Mycena?, 90, 144. 

A-gath'o-cles, king of Syracuse, 204, 206. 

Age of Despots, 99. 

A-ges-i-la'us, king of Sparta, gains a vic- 
tory at Coronea, 114; defeated by Epa- 
minondas, 115; his death. 116. 

Ag'in-court (a/-), battle of, 368, 396. 

A'gis, king of Sparta, defeated by An- 
tipater, 125, 

Agis (III.), attempts to reform the Spar- 
tan manners, 131; his death. 131, n. 

Agnadello iahn-yah-del'lo), battle of, 542. 

Agrarian Laws in Rome. 193, 221. 222. 

Agriculture, among the Assj-rians, .37; 
among the Egyptians, 51 ; in England, 
374, 477. 

Ag-ri-gen'tum, 87; taken by the Romans, 
207. 



660 



Index. 



Ah'ri-man, principle of evil in the relig- j 

ious system of the Persians, HO. 
A-hu'ra Maz'da, worshiped by the Per- 
sians, 80; explanation of. 80. 
Aix-la-Chapelle {akes-lah-sha-pel'), cap- 
ital of Charlemagne, 319; treaty of, 
510, 5&i 
Akbar iak'ber), 327. 
A'ken-side, Mark, 522. 
A-lans', 298. 
Al'a-ric, invades Italy, 285; captures 

Rome, 285. 
Al'ba Lon'ga, 183, 184, 185. 
Al-be-marle', duke of. See Monk. 
Albert I., emperor, 427, 437. 
Albert II., emperor, 430. 
Albert, prince, 519, 521. 
Albert Du'rer, 435, 641. 
Al-bi-gen'ses {-Jen-), 383, 384. 
Al'boin, king of the Lombards, 314. 
Al-cse'us, a (ireek poet, 155. 
Al-ci-bi'a-des, his conduct during the 
Peloponnesian war, 110; his character 
and death, 1 10, n. 
Alcuin {al'kwui), 319. 
Al-e-man'ni, defeated by the Romans, 
284; by the Franks, 31(5; overrun Switz- 
erland. 437. 
Al-ex-an'der the Great, ascends the 
throne of Macedon, 119; destroys 
Thebes, 119; defeats the Persians, 120; 
takes Tyre and Gaza, 122; gains a vic- 
toiy at Arbela, 122; other victories, 
123; dies at Babylon, 124; his charac- 
ter, 124. 
Alexander I., czar of Russia, 630. 
Alexander II., " " 630. 

Alexander III., " " 631. 

Alexander III. of Scotland, 3.59. 
Alexandria, its foundation, 122; its 
greatness under the Ptolemies, 136; 
the library at burnt, 236; taken by the 
Saracens,' 305: taken by Napoleon, 578. 
Al-ex-an'dra, princess of Wales, 625. 
A-lex'i-us Com-ne'nus, 312. 
Alfieri (al-fe-a're), 645. 
Al-fon'so VI. of Castile, 450. 
Alfonso X. " " 451. 
Alfonso XII. of Spain, 619. 
Alfonso III. of Portugal, 450. 
Alfred the Great, 334. 
Algarve (al-gar'va), conquest of, 450. 
Algiers, conquest of, 588. 
Al-ham'bra, palace of ,331 ; fortress of,450. 
All (ah'lee), caliph. 327. 
Al'i-son, Archibald, 536. 
Al'li-a, battle of, 197. 
Al'ma, battle of. 519. 
Al Man-sour' (soor), caliph, 329. 
Alphabet. Phoenician, 64. 
Alsace (al-sahss'), conquest of, 556. 
Al'va, duke of, 612. 
Am-a-de'us I., king of Spain, 619. 
Amain (ah-mar fee), 443, 445. 
A-ma'sis, reign of, in Egypt, 50. 
A-mer'i-ca, discovery of, 4.50. 
American colonies of Spain and Portu- 
gal, 637. 



Amerigo Vespucci {ah-ma-re'go ves- 
jjoot'che), 620. 

Am'i-ens, treaty of, 514, 579. 

Am'mon, Jupiter, temple of, visited by 
Cambyses, 76; by Alexander, 122. 

Am-phic-ty-on'ic Council, 91. 

Am-phip'o-lis, battle of, 109. 

Am'u-rath (or ah-moo-rat'), sultan of 
Turkey, 309, 458. 

A-na'cre-on, odes of, 155. 

An-ax-ag'o-ras, 158. 

An-co'na, 444, 445. 

An'cus Martins (mar'she-us), defeats 
the Latins, 185; length of his reign, 186. 

Andersen, Hans Christian, 646. 

An-dro-ni'cus, 257. 

An'ge-Io, Michael, 641. 

Angles, invasion of Britain by, 322. 

Anglo-Saxon civilization, 336. 

Anglo-Saxons, government of, 336; dwell- 
ings, 336; science, 337; commerce, 337. 

Anion iahri'joo). 350, 379. 

Anna Com-ne'ua, 312. 

Anne, queen of England, 500, 501, 502. 

Anne Boleyn (bfd'en), 465, 466, 467. 

Anne of Austria, 556. 

Anne of Brittany, 400. 

Anne of Cleves, 467. 

Anson, expedition of, 508. 

An-tal'ci-das, treaty of, 115. 

An-tig'o-nus, enters into league against 
Perdiccas, 126; war against, 127; his 
defeat and death, 127. 

Antigonus Doson, takes Sparta, 132. 

Antigonus Go-na'tas, tyranny of, 130. 

An'ti-och, foundation of, 134 ; taken by 
the Seljuks, 308, 409; by the Mame- 
lukes, 415. 

An-ti'o-chus I. (Soter), defeats the Gauls 
and afteiward defeated by them, 135. 

Antiochus II., 134. 

Antiochus III. (the Great), reign of, 135. 

An-tip'a-ter, regent in Macedonia, 120; 
defeats the Athenians in Thessaly, 125; 
his death, 127. 

An-to-ni'nus, Marcus Aurehus, 274; per- 
secutes the Christians, 280; I'epulses 
the barbarians, 283; date and length 
of I'eign, 288. 

Antoninus Pius, one of the " five good 
emperors," 274; date and length j|Of 
reign, 288. 

An'to-ny, Mark, his oration over Caesar's 
body, 239; master of Rome. 239; joins 
the second triumvirate, 241 ; takes part 
in the battle of Philippi, 242; alliance 
with Cleopatra, 243; defeat and death, 
243. 

Ant'werp, 330. 

A-os'ta, duke, king of Spain, 337. 

A-pel'les, his genius as a portrait- 
painter, 166. 
Aph-ro-di'te, her characteristics and 

worship, 149. 
A-pol'lo. different names of, his wor- 
ship, characteristics, etc., 147. 
Ap-ol-lo'ni-us, a noted mathematician, 
161. 



Index. 



661 



Apollonius Rhodius, his poem on the 
Ar^ouautic expedition, 1(50. 

Ap'pi-an Way, the construction of, 203. 

Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of the decem- 
virs, his tyranny, 195; his death, 196. 

Appjus Claudius Caecus, 203. 

Aqueducts, among the Chaldeans, 36; 
among the Romans, 203, 252. 

Aquitaiue (ak-we-tai)i'), 317, 379. 

Ar'a-dus, 61. 

Ar'a-go, 588. 

Ar'a-gon, kingdom of, 448; invaded by 
Philip in., 386; foreign possessions of, 
449. 

A'ram, 65. 

A-ra'tus of Sicyon, takes the lead of the 
Achaean league, 131; his death, 132. 

Ar-be'la, battle of, 122. 

Ar-ca'di-a, 85. 

Arcadians, become subject to Sparta, 95. 

Ar-ca'di-us, becomes emperor of the 
East, 285; his character, 301. 

Arch, invention of, 182, n. 

Archaeology, relation to history, 17. 

Ar-chil'o-chus, inventor of the elegy, 
155. 

Archimedes (ar-ke-me'dez), when he 
flourished, 206: aids in the defense of 
Syracuse, 211; his death, 211, n. 

Architecture, among the Chaldeans, 27, 
35; among the Medes, 41; among the 
Egyptians, 57; among the Persians, 79; 
among the early Greeks (Cyclopean), 
"* 145; the later Greeks, 163: the three 
orders of, 163; among the Etrurians, 
182; among the Romans, 2.55; the Tus- 
can order of, 256; Byzantine, 313; 
Saracenic, 331; Italian, 445; orders of, 
446; French, .565. - 

Archon (ar'kon), office of in Athens, 97. 

Ard-e-shir', revolt of the Persians under, 
276. 

A-re-op'a-gus. court of, 97. 

A'res, the god of war among the Greeks, 
147. 

A-re-the 'mi-US, Roman emperor, 290. 

Argentine iar-jen-teen') Republic, 657. 

Ar'gives, subject to Sparta, 95. 

Ar'go-lis, 85 ; Egyptians settle in, 90. 

Ar-go-nau'tic Expedition, date of, 89; its 
object, 89. 

Ar'gos, one of the ancient kingdoms of 
the Peloponnesus, 89; settlements in, 
90. 

A-ri'on, the poet and musician, story of, 
155. 

Ar-i-os'to, 447. 

A-ris-tar'chus, the critic, 160. 

Ar-is-ti'des, his moderation, 100, n. ; at 
Plataea, 103; acquires the chief com- 
mand, 104; rival of Themistocles, 104; 
called the Just. 105; his death, 105. 

A-ris-tip'pus, philosopher, 158. 

Ar-is-to-bu'lus, becomes king of Judea, 
69. 

Ar-is-to-gi'ton, aids in expelling the ty- 
rants from Athens, 98. 

Ar-is-toph'a-nes, his comedies, 159. 



Aristotle (nr-is-tot'l), tutor of Alexander. 
119; his birth, education, and school 
of philosophy, 119, ?i.; his lectm-es in 
the Lyceum, 159. 

Aries (arl), 320. 

Ark Wright, Sir Richard, 527. 

Ar-me'ni-a, one of the Minor Kingdoms, 
becomes independent, 130; its history, 
142; taken from the Parthians, 274. 

Arne, Thomas Augustine, Dr., 529. 

Arnold, Thomas, 535. 

Arnold of Win'kel-ried (-reed), 438. 

Ar-sin'o-e, sister of Cleopatra, walks in 
Caesar's triumph, 237. 

Arsinoe, wife of Seleucus, 130. 

Arsinoe, port of, 139. 

Art, Assyrian, 36, 37; Egyptian, 55, 59; 
Phoenician, 63; Hebrew, 69; Persian, 
79; Greek, 166, 172; Etruscan, 255; Ro- 
man, 255; Byzantine. 313; French, 402; 
Italian, 446; in England, .505. 529: in 
France, 566; general progress of in 
Europe, 639. 

Ar-ta-pher'nes, expedition of, 100. 

Ar-tax-ei-x'es I. (Longimanus), makes 
peace with the Greeks, 78; date of his 
reign, 84. 

Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), expedition 
against, 113; date of reign, 84. 

Artaxerxes III. (Oehus), his reign, M. 

Ar'te-mis, how represented, 148. 

Arthur, brother of Henry VIH., 463. 

Arthur, king, 333. 

Arthur, prince, 355. 

A'nms, conflict of with Brutus, 189. 

Ar'yans, one of the great races, 18; lan- 
guage of, 19; descendants of, 20; mi- 
gration of, 70, 79, 88; conquering tribes 
of, 299. 

Ar'va-a-var'ta.the home of the Aryans,70 

As'ca-lon, 61. 66; battle of, 413. 

As'cham {-kam), Roger, 468, 477. 

Ash-an-tee' War, 522. 

Ash'dod, 66. 

Asia Minor, kingdoms of, 41. 

As-mo-ne'an Dynasty, 69. 

As-pa'si-a, 172. 

As'pern, battle of, 582. 

Asshur (ash'nr), 31, 38. 

As'shur-ba'ni-pal, 33. 

As-syr'i-a, its situation, 26. 

Assyrian Canon, 21. 

Assyrian Empire, foundation of, 31 ; his- 
tory- of, 31, 32, 3:3, 34. 

As-tra-chan' i-kaii), 032. 

Astrology, 402. 

Astronomy, among the Chaldeans, 37; 
among the Egyptians, 59; as taught 
by Pji;hagoras, 156; Ptolemaic sys- 
tem, 161. See Science. 

As-tu'ri-as, kingdom of, 448. 

As-ty'a-ges, reign of, 40; court of, 41. 

A-the'ne, described, 148; how repre- 
sented, 148; temple of, 148. 

Ath'ens, aids in the revolt of the lonians, 
77; last king of, 96; taken and de- 
stroyed bv the Persians, 103; long 
walls of built, 107; plague at, 109; 



m 



Inde^. 



schools at, 171, n.\ market scene at, 
173, n. 

Atlantic Cable, laying of the, 531. 

At'ta-lus, king of "Pergamus, his alhance 
with the Romans, 141. 

Attains III., bequeaths Pergamus to the 
Romans, 131. 

At'ti-ca, 85. 

At'ti-la, leader of the Huns, 286; invades 
Italy, 287; invades the Greek Empire, 
301. 

Augs'burg, confession of, 600; diet of, 
602. 

Augustan Age, of English literature, 502; 
of French literature, 501, 566. 

Au-gus'tu-lus, Romulus, resigns the of- 
fice of Emperor of the West, 287. 

Au-gus'tus Caesar, acquires absolute au- 
thority, 213; his reign, 271; his death, 
2"2. 

Au-re'li-an, emperor, defeats Zenobia, 
277; defeats tTle Alemanni, 284; date 
of his reign, 288. 

Aurungzebe {o'rung-zabe), 654. 

Aus'ter-Utz, battle of, 579. 

Aus-tra'si-a, 317. 

Aus'tri-a, foundation of, 427; an heredi- 
tary empire, 605; history of modern, 
608. 

Austrian Succession, war of, 509, 562, 604. 

Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 608. 

A-vars', 299, 303, 318. 

Avignon (ah-veen'yong), 384, 444. 

A-vi'tus, emperor, date of his reign, 288. 

A-zo'tus, 66. 

Az'tecs, 656. 



Baal'bec, ruins of, 135. 

Bab'y-lon, early history of, 27; descrip- 
tion of, 29; taken by Cyrus, 29. 

Bab-y-lo'ni-a, its situation and fertility, 
25,' 35. 

Babylonian monarchies, 27. 

Babylonians, civilization of, 35. 

Bac-cha-na'li-a. See Dionysia. 

Bac'chus, 150. 

Bach {bahk), Sebastian, 639. 

Bacon, Lord, 506. 

Bacon, Roger, 363, 375. 

Bactrian kingdom, 134 ; its history, 143. 

Bag-dad', 329, 330. 

Bailly {ba'le, or bah'ye), 57^. 

Baj'a-zet I., 310, 458. 

Bajazet II., 631. 

Balaklava {bah-lah-klah'vah), battle of, 
519. 

Bal-bi'nus, emperor, 288. 

Bal-bo'a, 656. 

Baldwin, count of Flanders, 308, 413. 

Baldwin, prince of Edessa, 410. 

Ba'li-ol, John. 359, 360. 

Ballot Act, 522. 

Bal'ti-more, Lord, 503. 

Bal-zac', 568. 

Ban'nock-burn, battle of, 361. 

Bar-ba'does, 493. 

Barbauld, Anna Letitia, 535. 



Bar-ce-lo'na, commerce of, 451. 

Bar'di-us, 76. 

Barnet, battle of, 371. 

Basques {busks), 299, 318. 

Bastile {bas-teel'), taking of, 572. . 

Ba-ta'vi-a, 637. 

Batavian Republic, 613. 

Bay'ard, chevalier, 542, 543, 544. 

Bayonet, 565. 

Ba-zaine', marshal, 590, 591. 

Beaconsfield, earl of (Disraeli), 522, 523, 

537. 
Beat'tie, James. 532. 
Beaufort (bo' fort), duke of, 493. 
Beaumarchais (bo-mar-sha'), 595. 
Beamnont (bo'mont), 506. 
Becket, Thomas a, 351. 
Bedford, duke of, 368, 496. 
Beethoven {ba'to-ven), 640. 
Be'his-tun, rock of, 27, n., 80. 
Belgium, history of, 613. 
Bel-grade', battle of, 604; taking of, 632. 
Bel-i-sa'ri-us, defeats the Vandals and 

Goths, 302; conquest of Italy, 303. 
Bellini {bel-le'ne), 640. 
Bel-shaz'zar, 30; feast of, 30, n. 
Ben-e-ven'to, battle of, 443. 
Ben-e-ven'tum, battle of, 202. 
Bengal, conquest of, 511. 
Ben-ha'dad, 65. 

Ben-ve-nu'to Cellini (chel-e'ne), 641. 
Beranger (ba-rahn-zha' ), 595. 
Berbers, subdued by the Saracens, 328. 
Ber-e-ni'ce, port of, 139. 
Beresina (ber-e-ze'nah), battle of, 583. 
Bergen, 433. 
BerJin, treaty of, 523, 634; entered by 

Napoleon, 580. 
Berlin Decree, 580, 581. 
Berlioz (bare'Ie-o), 641. 
Ber-na-dotte' (-dot), 623. 
Be-ro'sus, lists of, 28; hfe of, 28. 
Bible, English, printing of, 467; transla- 
tion of, 481. 
Bill of Rights, 498. 
Bi'on, pastoral poet, 160. 
Birmingham, 504. » 
Bismarck, 606, 607. 
Bi-thyn'i-a, history of, 142; Ottoman 

kingdom of, 309. 
Black, chemist, 530. 
Black Death, in Germany, 429. 
Black Plague, in Fz-ance, 392. 
Black Prince, at Crecy, 363; at Poitiers, 

364 ; death of, 365. 
Blake, admiral, 489, 490, 491. 
Blanche of Castile, 384. 
Blen'heim (-hime), battle of, 500. 
Blucher (bloo'ker), 586, 611. 
Bo-ab'dil, king of Granada. 450. 
Boccaccio (bok-kat'cho), 447. 
Boe-o'ti-a, 85; Phoenician settlements in, 

90; rebellion in, 108. 
Bo-he'mi-a, a fief of Germany, 421 ; a 

kingdom, 425; religious war in, 430, 602. 
Bo'he-mond, count, 409. 
Boileau {bwah-lo'), 567. 
Bok-ha'ra, 655. 



Index. 



063 



Bo-les'las, 609. 

bol'i-var, 657. 

Bo-liv'i-a, 657. 

Bolugna [bo-lone' yah), 445. 

Bombay, 6U4. 

Bo'iia-parte, Jerome, 581. 

Bonaparte, Joseph, 580, 581. 

Bonaparte, Loms, 613. 

Bonaparte , Louis Napoleon. See Napo- 
leon III. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I. 

Bon'i-face VIll., pope, 385. 

Book of Common Prayer, 468. 

Book of the Dead, 55. 

Books of the ancient Greeks, 162 ; of the 
Romans, 264, n. 

Borussi {bo-roos'se), 609. 

Borodino (bor-o-de'no), battle of, 583. 

Bos'ni-a, history of, 456 ; insurrection in, 
630. 

Bossuet (bos-swa'), 568. 

Bosworth P'iekl, battle of, 372. 

Both'ni-a, 623. 

Boihwell, earl of, 472. 

Bourbon {boor'bon), constable, 543, 544, 
545. 

Bom'bon, house of, 553. 

Bourbons, restoration of, 585. 

Bourdaloue {boor-da-loo'), 568. 

Boyle, 505. 

Boyne, battle of the, 499. 

Bozzaris (bot'zah-ris), 635. 

Brad'dock, general, 510. 

Bradshaw, John, 487. 

Bra-gan'za, Catharine of, 493, n. 

Braganza, duke of, 618. 

Brahe (brah), Tycho, 642. 

Brah'ma, worshiped by the Hindoos, 70. 

Brahmanism, introduced into India, 70; 
religion of Iran. 79. 

Brandenburg, duchy of, 609. 

Bras'i-das, victory of, 109. 

Brazil, discovery of, 619; history of, 656. 

Brem'en, city of, 432. 

Bre'mer, Frederika, 646. 

Brewster, David, 537. 

Bridgewater, duke of, 528. 

Brindley, James, 528. 

Bristol, 504. 

Britain probably visited by the Phoeni- 
cians, 63; invaded by Caesar, 233; war 
against the Scots in, 275 ; wall built by 
Hadrian, 275; by Sevenis, 276. 

Britons, 323. 

Brit'ta-ny. 323. 

Bron'te, Charlotte, 536. 

Brougham {broo'am), Lord, 517, 535. 

Browning, Elizabeth B., 536. 

Browning, Robert, 536. 

Bruce, David, 363. 

Bruce, Robert, .359. 

Bruce, Robert (younger), 360. 

Bru'ges (bi-oo'jis), 432. 

Brunswick, city of, 432; duke of, 562; 
house of, .508. 

Brussels, 612. 

Bru'tus, Junius, made consul, 288; le- 
gends concerning, 289, 



Brutus (the Younger), conspires against 

Cajsar, 238; his defeat and death, 242. 
Buchanan, George, 480. 
Buckingham, duke of, minister of 

Ricliard 111., 372; minister of James I., 

480, 481, 482, 505. 
Buckle, Henry T., 537. 
Bu'da, taken by the Tvu-ks, 632. 
Buddha (bood'dak), founder of a new 

rehgion, 71. 
Buddhism, its foundation and docti'ines, 

71, n. 
Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz), 657. 
Button {boof-fony), 569. 
Bul-ga'ri-a, kingdom of, 306; history of , 

452 ; insurrection in, 630. 
Bulgarians, 303, 304. 
Bulvver (Lord Lytton), 536. 
Bunyan, John, 567. 
Burgundians, 297, 316, 4.37. 
Bur'gun-dy, 316, 317, 320, ^ 
Burke, Edmund, 51 3,^ 
Burney, Charles^29. 
Burney, Frgj:lcres, 535. 
Burns, Robert, 565. 
Bushire {boo-sheer'), taking of, 520. 
Bute, Lord, 512. 
Butler, Samuel, 502, 507. 
Byron, Lord, 517, 535, 635. 
Byz'an-tine (Jivilization, 310. 
By-zan'ti-um, taken by Pausanias, 103; 

becomes the capital of the Eastern 

Empire, 278, 



Cabal, the. 494. 

Cab'ot, John and Sebastian, 463, 657. 

Ca-bral', 619, 656. 

Cabul (kah-bool'), insurrection in, 519. 

Cade, Jack, 369. 

Ca-de'si-a, battle of, 327. 

Cad-mei'ans, driven out b3- the Thessa- 
lians, 92. 

Cad'mus brings the Phoenician alphabet 
into Greece, 64; founder of Thebes, 91. 

Caesar, Augustus. See Octavius and 
Augustus Caesar. 

Caesar, Julius, rise of, 232; forms the 
first triumvirate, 233; proconsul of 
Gaul, 233; his campaigns. 2^3; crosses 
the Rubicon. 234 ; defeats Pompey, 2.35; 
defeats Pharnaces, 236; gains the bat- 
tles of Thapsus and Munda. 2.37; mas- 
ter of Rome, 237; his triumph, 2:^7; 
assassinated, 238; his character, 239; 
his Commentaries, 258; first of the 
Twelve Caesars, 272. 

Caesars, the Twelve, 272, n. 

Caesars, under Diocletian and his suc- 
cessors, 277. 

Cairo {ki'ro), building of, 329; entered by 
Napoleon, .578. 

Ca-la'bri-a, 181. 

Ca'lah, ancient capital of Assyria, 31 ; its 
ruins, .32. 

Calais (kaJ'is), 363, 469, 547. 

Cal-de-ron' de la Barca, 644. 



664 



Indeed. 



Cal'e-do'ni-ans, defeated by Septimius 
Severus, )ilb. 

Ca-lig'u-la, one of the Twelve Caesars, 
'Z-i-Z\ date of reign, :i88. 

Cal-lim'a-chus, Greek poet, his hymns 
and elegies, 160. 

Callimachus, Greek sculptor, suggests 
the Corinthian capital, 104. 

Cal'neh, 2'6. 

Calvin, John, 614. 

Cam' bray, league of, 542; treaty of, 545. 

Cam-by'ses, his conquests, 76; his atroci- 
ties in Egypt, 76; his death, 76. 

Ca-mil'lus, takes Veii, 196; his exile, 197; 
vanquishes the Gauls, 197 ; made dic- 
tator, 198 ; dedicates a temple to Con- 
cord, 200. 

Ca-mo'ens (or catn'o-ens), 644. 

Cam-pa'ni-ans, invoke the aid of the Ro- 
mans, 201. 

Campbell (kam'el). Sir Col'in, 520. 

Campbell, Thomas, 5:34. 

Campo For'mi-o, treaty of, 577. 

Ca'naan-ites, 66. 

Can'a-da, insurrection in, 518; taken by 
the British, 562. 

Canal Navigation in England, 528. 

Ca-ua'ries, visited by the Phoenicians, 63. 

Can'nae, battle of, 210. 

Cannon, first use of, 362, 393, 402. 

Canon of Ptolemy, 29. 

Ca-no'va, Antonio, 641. 

Can-ton', taken bj^ the English, 521. 

Ca-nute' the Dane, king, 334. 

Ca'pet (or kah-pa'), Hugh, 379 

Capetiau Dynasty, 379. 

Ca'po distria, Count, 635. 

Cap-pa-do'ci-a, history of, 142. 

Car-a-cal'la, emperor, his character, 276; 
date of reign, 288. 

Car'dan, 642. 

Ca-ri'nus, emperor, date of reign, 288, 

Car'lo Dolci idol'che), 641, 

Car'lo-man, 318. 

Carlovingian Dynasty, 318, 379. 

Carlyle, Thomas, 537. 

Caroline of Brunswick, 517, 

Carr, Robert, 480. 

Carracci {kar-rat'chee), 641, 

Car'thage, a Phoenician or Tyrian col- 
ony, 61; when settled, 61, 204; her 
power, 204; war of Agathocles with, 
206; wars with the Romans, 206, 209, 
215; destruction of, 217; capital of the 
kingdom of the Vandals, 287, 298; 
taken by the Saracens, 328. 

Cas-san'der, son of Antipater, war with 
Polysperchon, 127; king of Greece and 
Macedonia, 128; his death, 129. 

Cas'si-mir, John, king of Poland, 626. 

Cassini (kahs-se'ne), 566, 642. 

Cassius (kash'e-us). lieutenant of Cras- 
sus, 214; conspires against Caesar, 238; 
defeat and death, 242. 

Castile (kahs-teel'), kingdom of, 448, 

Castilian Dialects, 451; writers, 451. 

Catharine I., empress of Russia, 629. 

Catharine II,, " " " 629. 



Catharine of Aragon, 463. 

Catharine de' iVledici. See Medici. 

Ca-thay', empire of, 72. 

Catholic Church, 311. 

Catholics, disabilities of removed, 517. 

Cat'i-line, Lucius, character of, 231 ; his 
plot frustrated, 231; defeated and 
slain, 232. 

Ca'to, Porcius, the Censor, his hiitred to 
Carthage, 216. 

Cato, the Stoic, commits suicide at 
Utica, 237, 

Ca-tul'lus, Roman poet, £58. 

Cau'ca-sus, 630. 

Cau'dine Forks, battle of, 201. 

Cavaliers or Royalists, 485, 502, 

Cavendish, 530. 

Cawn'pore, 520, 

Cax'ton, William, 376, 

Cecil {ses'il). Lord Burleigh, 470, 477. 

Ce'croiDs, founder of Athens, 91. 

Cellini (chel-le'iie), Benvenuto, 641. 

Cel-ti-be'ri-ans, war with, 217, 

Celts, 299. 

Censors, establishment of, 196, 

Central America. 656. 

Centuries, assembly of, 196, 

Ce-phis'sus, 92. 

Cere a'li a, 261, 

Ce'res. See Demeter. 

Cer-van'tes, 644. 

Ceylon (se'lon), reached by the Phoeni- 
cians, 63; conquest of by the Portu- 
guese, 620. 

Cnae-ro-ne'a, battle of, 119. 

Chal-de'a, situation and fertility of, 25, 27, 

Chal-dees', or Chaldeans, progress in the 
arts, etc., 27; an architectural people, 
35; their commerce, 36. 

Champagne {shong-pahn'), 379. 

Charlemagne (shar-le-mahn'), emperor, 
318; character, 319; defeats the Sara- 
cens. 328. 

Charles Albert of Sardinia, 615, 

Charles of Anjou, 385, 386, 426, 443. 

Charles, archduke, 582. 

Charles the Bold. 399, 404, 438, 

Charles I. of England, reign of, 481 ; exe- 
cution of, 478 ; character, 498. 

Charles II. of England, 488, 492. 

Charles the Fat, 320. 

Charles IV. of France, 388, 

Charles V. " 395. 

Charles VI, " 395, 

Charles VII. " 396, 

Charles VIII, " 396, 

Charles IX. " 548, 

Charles X. " 587, 

Charles IV, of Germany, 428, 

Charles V. " 598. • 

Charles VI. " 604. 

Charles VII. " 604. 

Charles of Luxemburg, 428, 

Charles Martel, 317, 328. 

Charles the Pretender, 509, 517. 

Charles the Simple, 321. 

Charles L of Spain, 616. 

Charles n. " 618. 



Index. 



m^ 



Charles XI. of Sweden, 622. 

Charles XII. " 623, 628. 

Charles XIII. " 623. 

Charles XIV. " 623. 

Charles XV. " 623. 

Charles of Valois {val-wah'), 387. 

Cha'ron, 174. 

Chartists, 518. 

Chateaubriand (shah-to-bre-ahng'), 595. 

Chatham, earl of. See Pitt. 

Chatterton, Thomas, 532. 

Chaucer {chaw'ser), Geoffrey, 367, 376. 

Chemi {ka'me), ancient name of Egj'pt, 
51. 

Chenier (shen-e-a'), Andre, 595. 

Cheops {ke'ops), builder of the Great 
Pyramid, 58. 

Cherbourg {sher'hoorg), 594. 

Chevy Chace, battle of, 367. 

Chil'der-ic {shil'der-ic), 318. 

Children's Crusade, 414. 

Chili {chil'eu 657. 

China, origin of the name, 72; ancient 
history of, 72; modern history of, 652; \ 
war with, 521 

Chinese, liistory of, 72; civilization and 
language, 73; religion, 74. 

Chios (ke'os), 86. 

Chivalry, or Knighthood, 345. 

Christian Chm'ch, 311. 

Christian IV. of Denmark, 602, 634. 

Christian IX. " 625. 

Christian, duke of Brunswick, 602. 

Christianity, its rise and progress, 279; 
embraced by the Franks, 316; intro- 
duced into Germany, 431; into Bul- 
garia, 452. 

Christina {kris-te'nah), queen of Sweden, 
■622. ^ 

Chronology, 20. ^ 

Churchill, John (Marlborough), 500, n. 

Cic'e-ro. education and history, 231 , n. ; 
denounces Catiline, 2^31; causes the 
conspirators to be put to death, 232; 
his Fhilippics, 240; assassinated by 
order of Antony, 241. 

Cid, exploits of the, 451. 

Cilicia (se-Ush'e-aJi ), kingdom of, 41. 

Cimabue {che-mah-boo'a), 446. 

Cimarosa (che-mah-ro'sah), 640. 

Cim'bri, defeated by Marius, 224, 225. 

Ci'mon, his victory over the Persians, 
106; his character, 106, n. ; his admin- 
istration, 106, 107; his death, 106. 

Cin-cin-na'tus. dictator, 194. 

Cin'na, consul with Marius, 228. 

Cisalpine Republic, .577. 

Citium, (sish'e-iim), siege of, 106. 

Civilization, Chaldean, Babylonian, and 
Assyrian, 35; Median, 41 : Egyptian. 45; 
Phoenician, 63; Hebrew, 69: Chinese, 
73; Persian, 78; Grecian, 14:3; Roman, 
249; Byzantine, 310; Saracenic, 3:30: 
Anglo-Saxon, 336; Norman, :342: Eng- 
lish, 373, 474, 502, 524: French, 398, 401, 
550, 563, 592; German, 431; Italian, 445; 
progress of in Spain and Portugal, 
451 ; progress of in modern Europe, 636. 



Clarence, duke of, 371. 

Clarence, duke of (William IV.), 517. 

Clarendon, earl of. See Hyde. 

Claude Lorraine', 5t)9. 

Clau'di-us I., one of the Twelve Caesars, 
272; date of his reigu,288. 

Claudius II., 284, 288. 

Cle-ar'clius, a Spartan general, enters 
the service of Cyrus, 113. 

Clement VII., pope, 465, 54.5. 

Clement, assassin of Henry III., 550. 

Cle-om'e-nes, king of Sparta, 131. 

Cle'on, successor of Pericles, 109. 

Cle-o-pa'tra, last of the Ptolemies, 141, 
236, 242, 243. 

Clepsydra, set up in Rome, 220. 

Clermont, council of, 408. 

Clis'the-nes, his administration at 
Athens, 98. 

Cli'tus, killed by Alexander, 123. 

Clive, Lord, 511, 512. 

Clo'di-us, 2:34. 

Clon-tarf, battle of, 353. 

Cloth Manufacture in England, 476. 

Clo'vis, 316, 317. 

Clu'si-um, attacked by the Gauls, 197. 

Cnidus { 11 i'd us), battle of , 114. 

Code Napoleon, 593. 

Co'drus, last king of Athens, 96. 

Coe'le-Syria, its situation, 135. 

Coffee, introduced into France, 566. 

Colbert (kul-bare'), 558, 564. 

Colchis {kol'kis), 89. 

Cole'ridge, Samuel T., 534. 

Coligni {ko-leen'ye}, admiral, 547, 548, 
549. 

Col-la-ti'nus, 188. 

Collins, William, 531. 

Cologne {ko-lone'), 432. 

Co-lom'bi-a, 657. 

Col-os-se'um, or Flavian Amphitheater, 
description of, 254, n. ; completed by 
Titus, 272. 

Co-los'sus of Rhodes, 141, 142, 327. 

Co-lum'bus, Christopher, 450, 463. 

Commerce, of the Chaldeans, 36: of the 
Egyptians, 55; of thfe Phoenicians, 62; 
of the Hebrews, 67; of the Hindoos, 
71; of the kingdom of the Ptolemies, 
136, 139; of the early Greeks. 144; of 
Athens, 172; of the Greek Empire, 312; 
of the Sai-acens, 330, 331 : of the Anglo- 
Saxons, 337; in England, 374, 425, 503, 
.525; in France, 390, 564. 

Com'mo-dus, emperor, 288. 

Commonwealth, English, 488. 

Commime, insurrection of the Paris, 
591. 

Communes, in France, 382. 

Com-ne'na, Anna, 312. 

Comte (kongt), .595. 

Con'de, prince of, 547, 548, M9. 

Conde the Great, 5.57. 

Confederation of the Rhine, 580. 

Conformity, Act of, 470. 

Con-fu'ci-us, his teachings, 73; works 
compiled by, 74. 

Con'greve, 5()7. 



me 



Index. 



Co'non, defeated by the Spartans, 111; 
gains a victory at Cnidus, 114; thrown 
into prison, 115. 

Con'rad, author of Song of Roland, 434. 

Conrad 1. (of Franeonia), enaperor, 418. 

Conrad II., emperor, 4:^2. 

Conrad III., emperor, 411, 424. 

Conrad IV., emperor, 420. 

Constance, comicii of, 429; peace of, 439. 

Con'stans, emperor, 288. 

Con'stan-tine 1. (the Great), saluted em- 
peror, 278; his conversion, 278; re- 
moves the capital, 278; issues the edict 
of Milan, 279; his measures in favor of 
Christianity, 282; his death, 282. 

Constantine \1.^ 288. 

Constantine (Pal-te-oro-gus), 310. 

Con-stan-ti-no'ple, the capital of the Ro- 
man Empire, 278; besieged by the 
Saracens, 306, 327; taken by the Turks, 
310; commerce of, 312; taken by the 
Crusaders, ;308, 414. 

Con-Stan' ti-us I., 278. 

Constantius II., 288. 

Constitutions of Clarendon, 351. 

Consulate and Empire, 578. 

Consulship, Roman, established, 188; 
plebeians admitted to, 196. 

Coo-mas' sie, 522. 

Co-pen-ha'gen, battle of, 514, 624. 

Co-per'ni-cus, 435, 642, 

Cop'tos, 139. 

Cor-cy'ra, island of, 85; difficulty vi^ith 
Corinth, 109. 

Cor'day, Charlotte, 576. 

Cor'do-va, caliphate of, 329; city of, 331. 

Cordova, Gonsalvo de, 541. 

Corinth, under Feriander, 99; taken by 
the Romans, 215. 

Co-rin'thi-a, 85. 

Corinthian Order of Architecture, 164. 

Co-ri-o-la'nus, account of, 194. 

Corneille {kor-naW), 566, 567. 

Corn Laws, repeal of, 519. 

Cornwallis, surrender of, 513. 

Cor-o-ne'a, defeat of the Athenians at, 
108; victory of Agesilaus at, 114. 

Correggio (kor-red'jo), 641. 

Cor'tez, 656. 

Co-run'na, battle of, 515. 

Cos-so'va, battle of, 309, 454. 

Cos'ter, Laurens, 435. 

Costume, Greek, 169; Roman, 547; in 
France, 391, 403, 567, 593; in Germany, 
433, 551. 

Cotton Manufacture, in France, 566; of 
the Normans, 344; in England, 374, 375. 

Cousin ikoo-zang'), 595. 

Covenant, Scottish, 483, 486. 

Covenanters, defeated by Cromwell, 488. 

Coverdale, Miles, 467. 

Cowley, Abraham, 507. 

Cowper, William, 532. 

Cranmer, archbishop. 465, 466, 468, 469. 

Cras'sus, defeats Spartacus, 229; his 
great wealth, 230; joins the first tri- 
umvirate, 233; defeated and slain by 
the Parthians, 234. 



Crat'e-rus, with Antipater defeats the 

Athenians, 125; enters the league 

against Perdiccas, 127. 
Crebillon (kre-be'yoiiy), 594. 
Crecy (/cres'e), battle of, 362. 
Crim'e-an War, 519. 
Cro-a'ti-a, conquest of, 455. 
Croe'sus, king of Lydia, his immense 

wealth, 43; defeated and taken 

prisoner by Cyrus, 43; alliance with 

Egypt, 50. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 486, 488, 490, 491. 
Cromwell, Richard, 492. 
Cro'ton, 87. 

Cro-to'na, battle of, 442. 
Crusades, 307, 308; cause of, 407; first, 

408; second, 411; third, 412; fourth, 

413; subsequent, 415; influence of, 416. 
Ctesias {te'slie-as), his account of Sar- 

danapalus, 31. 
Ctes'i-phon, 274, 275. 
Cul-lo'den, battle of, 509. 
Cu'mai, 87. 
Cu-ma'ni-a, 455. 
Cumans, invasion of, 455. 
Cumberland, duke of, 509, 510, 518. 
Cu-nax'a, battle of, 113. 
Cu-ne'i-form Inscriptions, 27, 36, 80. 
Cu-re'tes, 88. 
Curfew Bell, 338. 

Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, defeats Pyrrhus, 198. 
Curtius, 646. 
Cy-ax'a-res, king of the Medes, takes 

and destroys Nineveh, 34; his con- 
quests, 40. 
Cyc'la-des, 85, 92. 
Cyclopean Architecture, 88, 145. 
Cy-nos-ceph'a-lae, battle of, 132, 214. 
Cyprus taken bj- Sargon, 32; siege of, 

loe^taken by the Saracens, 327; ceded 

to Great Britain, 522. 
Cy-re-na'i-ca, province of, 87; subdued 

by Ptolemy I., 137. 
Cy-re'ne, 87. 

Cy'ril, bishop of'Alexandria, 311. 
Cyrus the Great, his birth, 40; subdues 

Media, 40; his rapid conquests, 75; his 

death, 75. 
Cyrus the Younger, his expedition into 

Persia, 113; his death, 113. 
Cyz'i-cus, 87. 



Da'ci-a, given up to the Goths, 284 ; oc- 
cupied by the Bulgarians and Avars, 
304. 

D'Alembert (dah-long-bare'), 569. 

Dal-ma'ti-a, acquired by Venice, 440; 
conquered by Hungary, 456. 

Dal'ton, John, 530. 

Da-mas'cus, Syria of, 65. 

Damascus, taken by the Saracens, 305, 
326. 

Dam-i-et'ta, taken by the Crusaders, 
415; by Louis IX., 415. 

Dan'do-io, doge of Venice, 413, 441. 

Danes, invade England, 333, 334. 



Index. 



667 



Danish East India Company, 637. 

Dante (dan'ta), 426, 447. 

Dauton (dahn-tong' ), 575, 576. 

Dantzic, 432. 

Daph-ne-pho'ri-a, festival of, 152. 

Da-ri'us I. (Hys-tas'pes), elected king of 

Persia, 76; his reign, 7T. 
Darius II. (Nothus), date of reign, 84. 
Darius III. (Codomannus), subdued by 

Alexander the Gi-eat, 78; battles fought 

by, 120, 122, 123. 
Darnley, Lord, 472. 
Darwin, Charles, 537. 
Da'tis, expedition under, 100. 
Dauphin, 392. 

Dauphiny (dau-fe-ne'), 392. 
Dav'e-nant, Sir William, 507. 
David, king, his victory over the Syrians 

of Damascus, 65; his reign, 66. 
Davis, voyage of, 475. 
Davy, Sir Humphry, 529. 
De-cem'virs, appointed, 195; abolished, 

196. 
De'ci-us, emperor, persecutes the Chris- 
tians, 280; defeated and slain by the 

Goths, 284. 
De Foe, 507. 

De Genlis {zhahng-le'), Madame, 495. 
Delhi (del'le), 520, 654. 
Delisle {duh-leel'), 569. 
De'li-um, battle of, 109. 
Delorme (duh-lorm'), Philibert, 552. 
De'los, confederacy of, 104. 
Del'phi, temple of, 164. 
Delphic Oracle, 154. 
De-me'ter, worship of, 149, 150. 
De-me'tri-us, son of Antigonus, his treat- 
ment of the Athenians, 128, n. ; his 

death, 129. 
Demetrius, Pha-le'ri-us, his rule at 

Athens, 127. 
De-moc'ri-tus, his doctrines, 158. 
De Mont'fort, Simon, 358. 
De-mos'the-nes, his orations against 

Philip, 119; his exile, 125; his death, 

126, n. 
Denmark, history of, 624. 
Den-ta'tus, Lucius Si-cen'ni-us, murder 

of. 195. 
De Ruyter {H'ter\ 489, 493, 558, 559. 
Des Cartes {da cart), 569. 
Deseze {duh-saze'), 575. 
De Stael (stah'el) Madame, 595. 
De Thou {too), 568. 
Det' ting-en, battle of, 509. 
De Witt, John and Cornelius, 558, 559. 
Di-a'na. See Artemis. 
Diaz (de'az), Bartholomew, 450. 
Dickens, Charles, 536. 
Dictator, office of, 189, n. 
Diderot (de'da-ro), 569. 
Did'i-us Ju-li-a'nus, his purchase of the 

Roman empire, 278; date of reign, 288. 

Di'do, founds Carthage, 61. 

Dieskau {de-es-ko'), baron, 510. 

Di-o-cle'ti-an, emperor, accession of, 277 ; 

resigns the empire, 278; persecution of 

the Christians by, 280; date of reign, 288. 



Di-o-do'rus Sic'u-lus, his history, 45, 161 
Di-og'e-nes, his singular character and 

behavior, 120, n. ; his teachings, 158. 
Di-o-me'des, 145. 
Di-o-ny'si-a, festival of, 152. 
Di-o-ny'si-us, king of Syracuse, 204. 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, his history. 

161. 
Di-o-ny'sos, worship of, 150. 
Directory, French, 577. 
Disraeli {diz-ra'el-e), Benjamin, earl of 

Beaconsfield, 522, 523, 537. 
Divination, practice of by the Greeks, 

154; by the Etruscans, 182; by the Ro- 
mans, 259. 
Dod'dridge, Philip, 525, 532. 
Do-do'na, oracle of, 154. 
Dol'o-pes, 88. 
Domesday Book, 57, 62. 
Domitian {do-vnsh'e-an), one of the 

Twelve Caesais, 272; his character, 

274; date of reign, 288. 
Dom Miguel (nte'yhel), 621. 
Dom Pedro ( xm'dro), 621. 
Don Carlos I. of Spain, 616. 
Don Carlos, claimant to the Spanish 

throne, 619. 
Don Carvalho {kHr-val'yo), 621. 
Donizetti (don-e-zet'te), 640. 
Do'ri-an Colonies, 86. 
Dorians, their influence, 89; migrations 

of. 92. 
Do'ris, 85. 

Douglas, Scottish chief, 367. 
Dra'co, his laws, 96. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 471. 
Drama, French, 402. 
Dres'den, battle of, 584. 
Dry den, John, 507. 
Du Bois {bn-ah). Abbe, 561. 
Dudley, Lord Guilford, 468. 
Du Guesclin {ga-klahng'), 595. 
Du-il'li-us, victories gained by, 207. 
Dumas {du-mah'), Alexandre, 595. 
Dumouriez {du-vwo-re-a'). General, 575. 
Dunbar, battle of, 360, 488. 
Dunkirk, 491, 493. 
Du Quesne {kane), fort, 510. 
Durazzo {doo-rdt'zo), 443. 
Du'rer, Albert, 435, 641. 
Durham, university of, 525. 
Dutch East India Company, 637. 
Dutch Republic, 613. 
Dwelling-houses, among the Greeks, 167, 

among the Romans, 262, 



Eastern or Greek Empire, 288; extent 
of, 299; foundation of, 301; invaded 
by the Huns, 301 ; attacked by the Sara- 
cens, 305, 306; end of, 310. 

Eastern War of 1877-8, 522, 634. 

East India Company, British, 513, 521. 

East India Trade, 504. 

Ec-bat'a-na, royal palace at, 41 ; capital 
of Darius, 77; ruins at, 79. 

Eck'muhl, battle of, 582. 



668 



Index. 



Ecuador (ek-u-ah-dore'), G3T. 

Edgehill, battle of, 485. 

Edgeworth, Maria, 535. 

Education, among the Egyptians, 53; 
among the Greeks, 171; among the 
Romans, 263; in France, 390; in Eng- 
land, 535. 

Edward I. of England, 359, 415, 416. 

Edward II. " 361. 

Edward III. " 362, 365. 

Edward IV. " 370. 

Edward V. " 371. 

Edward VI. " 468. 

Edward the Black Prince, 363, 364, 365. 

Edward the Confessor, 334. 

Edward, prince of Wales, 358, 359. 

Edward, prince, son of Henry VI., 371. 

E-gal'i-te, Philip, 576. 

Eg'bert, king of England, 324, 333. 

E'gypt, origin, chronology, sources of 
its histor3% 45; dynasties, early his- 
tory, 47; Hyksos, 48; subsequent his- 
tory, 49, 50; topography and civiliza- 
tion, 51, 52; under the Ptolemies, 136; 
becomes a Roman province, 243; con- 
quered by the Saracens, 305, 326; by 
the Fatirtiites, 330. 

Ek'ron, 66. 

E-la-gab'a-lus, emperor, 288. 

El'ba, island of, 516, 585. 

Eleanor, duchess of Guienne, 350, 353, 354, 
382. 

E-leu'sis, mysteries of, 152, 153. 

El'i-ot, George (Mrs. Lewes), 536. 

Eliot, Sir John, 482, 483. 

E'lis, 85. 

Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 461. 

Elizabeth, queen, 181; revenue of, 475; 
poems of, 478. 

Elizabeth Gray, 370. 

E-man'u-el the Fortunate, 619. 

Empire of the West, revival of, 319. 

Encyclopa^lie, French, 569. 

England, origin of the name, 324; in the 
Middle Ages, 333; under the Tudors, 
478 ; under the Stuarts, 461 ; under the 
house of Brunswick, 508. 

England and Scotland, union of, 502. 

English, middle, 326; modern, 477. 

English Literature, first era of, 376. 

En'ni-us, time of, 220; his poems. 2.57. 

E-pam-i-non'das, defeats the Spartans, 
115; his character, 116; tutor of Philip, 
117. 

Eph'e-sus, its importance, 86. 

Ep-ic-te'tus, writer on the Stoic philoso- 
phy, 159. 

Ep-i-cu'rus, his doctrines, 158. 

E-pi'rus, 85; migration of races from, 
92. 

E-ras'mus, 477, 643. 

E'rech, 28. 

E-sar-had'don, conquests of, 33. 

Essex, earl of, 474; leader of the parlia- 
mentary forces, 485. 

E-thi-o'pi-ans, history of, 60, 61. 

Ethnology, 17; synopsis of, 24, 800, 

E-tru'ri-a, 182. 



E-trus'cans, or Etrurians, occupy the 
plain of the Po, 182; confederacy of, 
182; their character, 182. 

Eu-bcB'a, island of, 85. 

Eu'clid, Greek mathematician, 160. 

Eugene, Prince, 501, 604, 633. 

Euler (ijoo'ler), 642. 

Fu-rip'i-des, tragedies of, 157, 159. 

Eu-ry-bi'a-des, commands the Grecians 
at Salamis, 103. 

Eu-rym'e-don, battle of, 106. 

Eves'ham, battle of, 358. 

Exodus, date of, 48. 

Eylau (i'low), battle of, 580, 

E'zi-ou-ge'ber, situation of, 67. 



Fa'bi-an Family, usurpation of the, 193; 

Fa'bi-us Maximus, dictator, 210; his 
policy, 211. 

Fah'ren-heit, 643. 

Fairfax, Lord, 486. 

Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 486. 

Falkirk, battle of, 360. 

Falkland {fmvk'land). Lord, 486. 

Far'a-day, Michael, 530. 

Fa'roe Islands, colonized by the Nor- 
mans, 311. 

Fas'ti Cap-i-to-li'ni, 22. 

Fat'i-mites, origin of, 329; conquests of, 
330; end of, 330, 412. 

Fenelon (fa-na-long'), 568. 

Fe-ra'li-a, 261. 

Ferdinand I., emperor, 602. 

Ferdinand 11. , " 602, 603. 

Ferdinand III., " 604. 

Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 618. 

Ferdinand of Aragon, .541. 

Feudal Castle, description of, 343. 

Feudalism, in England, 374; in France, 
388; in Germany, 431. 

Feudal System, an account of, 339. 

Fez, 329. 

Fichte ifik'teh), 646. 

Fielding, 533. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold, 465. 544. 

Fine Arts, among the Chaldeans, 36; the 
Egyptians, .56; the Greeks, 162; the 
Romans, 255; in England. .50.5, .528.639; 
in Italy, 446; in modern Europe, 639. 

Finland,' 623. 

Fins, 299. 

Firdusi (feer-doo'se), Persian poet, 80. 

Fisher, bishop, 466. 

Fla'mens, 261. 

Flam-i-ni'nus, defeats Philip in the bat- 
tle of Cynoscephalse. 214; sent to de- 
mand the person of Hannibal, 213, n. 

Flam-ma'ri-on. .595. 

Flamsteed. .506. 

Flanders, 380, .558. 

Flemings, manufactures of, 365: revolt 
of, .386, .395. 

Fletcher, 506. 

Fleury ( fluh're), Abl)6 de, 568. 

Fleury, cardinal, 561, 562. 

Flodden Field, battle of, 464. 



Index, 



669 



Florence, 445, 446. 

Foix (fivali)^ Gaston de, 542. 

Fontenaille {fon-ta-nale'), battle of, 319, 

418. 
Fontenoy ( fon-ta-iiivah' ), battle of, 509. 
Fortification, art of, 5G5. 
Fox, George, 503. 
France, college of, 553. 
France, invasion of, 362, 363; provinces of 

under Hugh Capet, 379; history of, 379, 

541. 
Franche Comt6 {fransh kong'ta), 558. 
Francis I. of France, 543. 
Francis II. " 547. 

Francis II., emperor, 605. 
Francis, duke of Guise, 547. 
Francis of Lorraine, 605. 
Franco-German War, 590, 607. 
Franconian Emperors, 422, 423. 
Franklin, Dr., 530, 593. 
Franks, origin of, 315; in Germany, 418. 
Frederick Barbarossa, 412, 425. 
Frederick of Austria, 428. 
Frederick, elector-palatine, 602. 
Frederick, elector of Saxony, 599, 601. 
Fi-ederick II., emperor, 415, 425. 
Frederick III., " 430. 
Frederick the Great, 604, 610. 
Frederick William I., 610. 
Frederick William III., 611. 
Frederick William IV., 611. 
Frederick William, the Great Elector, 

609. 
Free Cities of Germany, 428, 432. 
French Academj-, 556. 
French Language and Literature, 391. 
French Revolution, 572, 592. 
Friedland (freed' land), battle of, 571. 
Frob'ish-er, Martin, 471, 475. 
Froe'bel, 646. 
Frois'sart, Jean. 404. 
Fronde, war of the, .557. 
Froude ( frood). James A., 537. 
Fuller, Thomas, 407. 
Fulton, Robert, 526, n. 
Funeral Ceremonies, of the Egyptians, 

54; of the Greeks, 174; of the Romans, 

266. 
Furniture, of the Anglo-Saxons, 337; in 

France, 567. 

G 

Ga'des. colony of the Phoenicians, 61. 

Ga-la'ti-a, a settlement of. 130. 

Gal'ba, 272, n. 

Ga'len, writings of, 161. 

Ga-le'ri-us, Caesar imder Diocletian, 378; 

persecutes the Christians, 280; edict 

of, 281. 
Gal-i-le'o, 642. 
Gall. Dr., 643. 
Gal-li-e'nus, emperor, 276; bestows the 

government of the East on Odenathus 

and Zenobia, 277; date of reign, 288. 
Gal'lus emperor, 290. 
Galvanl (gal-vah'ne), 643. 
Gama (gah'niah), Vasco da, 451. 
Gas'co-ny, 379. 



Gates, general, 573. 

Gath, 66. 

Gau-ga-me'la, battle of, 122. 

Gauls, invasion by the, 130, 197. 

Gay, John, .529, .531. 

Gaza, 66; taken by Alexander, 122. 

Ge-dro'si-a, 124. 

Ge-ne'va, 614. 

Genghis (jeng'ghis) Khan, 309, 320. 

Genoa (j'e/i'o-a/(.), 441, 445. 

Gen'ser-ic, king of the Vandals, takes 
and plunders Rome, 287. 

Geoffrey ije/'fre) of Monmouth, 345. 

Georgia, colony, 508. 

Georgia, Russian province, 655. 

George I. of England, 508. 

George II. " 508. 

George III. " 512. 

George IV. " 516. 

George I., king of the Hellenes, 636. 

Gep'i-dse, 299, 304. 

Gerbert (gher'bert) (Sylvester 11. ), 421. 

Germanic Confederation, 606, 607. , 

Germany, history of, 418, 598; state of 
society in, 431 ; emperors of, 436, 652. 

Gesler (ghes'ler), 428. 

Ghent, treaty of, 516. 

Gibbon, Edward, 533. 

Gibraltar, 328, 501. 

Giotto {jot' to), 446. 

Girondists (zhe-rond'ists), 575. 

Gizeh (ghe'zd), site of Great Pyramid, 53. 

Gladiatorial Exhibitions in Rome, 253. 

Gladstone, William E., 523, 537. 

Glencoe, massacre of, 499. 

Gloster, duke of, 371, 372. 

Gluck (globk), 639. 

Gly-ce'ri-us, emperor. 288. 

Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-yong'), 409, 410. 

Godwin, earl. 335. 

Goethe (giVi'teh), 646. 

Golden Bull, 429. 

Goldsmith, Oliver, 5'^1. 

Good Hope, Cape, discovery of, 451. 

Gor'di-an I., emperor, 288. 

Gordian IT. , emperor. 288. 

Gordian III., emperor, 288. 

Gor-di-e'um. 41. 

Gordon, Lady, 462. 

Goths, attack the Roman empire, 283: 
defeated bv Claudius, 284; settle in 
Dacia, 284; in Mnesia, 284: defeat tbe 
Romans at Adrianople, 284: defeated 
by Theodosius. 284; invade Greece, 28.5; 
invade the Eastern Empire, 297, 298; 
Switzerland, 437. 

Gounod (gnn-no'), 641. 

Grac'chi," their attempts at reform, 221; 
their character, 223. 

Grac'chus. Cains, 223. 

Gracchus, Tiberius, 223. 

Gra-na'da, under the Moors, asi; king- 
dom of. 449. 

Gra-ni'cus, battle of, 119. 

Grand Alliance, 500. 

Gray, Thomas, 502. 

Great Pyramid, construction of, 53; de- 
scription of, 57, 58, n. 



670 



Index. 



Greece, geographical sketch of, 85; his- 
tory of, 88; becomes a Roman prov- 
ince, 215; invaded by the Goths, 285; 
history of modern, 035; independence 
of, 517. 

Greek Church, 311. 

Greek Colonies, 77, 86, 99. 

Greek Empire. See Eastern Empire. 

Greek Fire, 306. 

Greek Language, 311. 

Greenland, 321. 

Gregory the Great, 333. 

Gregory VII., pope, 408, 423, 443. 

Grevy, president of France, 591. 

Grey, Lady Jane, 408, 477, 

Grote, George, 537. 

Grotius, Hugo, 644. 

Guelph, 424. 

Guelphs and Ghibellines, 4&9. 

Guericke (gher'ik-kd), 643. 

Guido igwe'do) of Arezzo (ah-ret'zo), 447. 

Guienne (ghe-en'), 379, 388. 

Guiscard (ghees-k((r'). Robert, 442, 443. 

Guise (gweez). duke of, 547. 

Guizot ighe-zo'), 595. 

Gunpowder Plot. 479. 

Gus-ta'vus Adolphus, 603, 622. 

Gustavus IV. of Sweden, 623. 
\ Gustavus Vasa (vaJi'mh), 622. 

Gutenberg {goo' ten-berg), John, 435. 

Guy Fawkes, 479. 

Gymnasium, Greek, 170. 



Habeas Corpus Act, 496. 

Ha'des, the unseen world, 150; rivers in, 
174, ».; burial requisite for entrance 
to. 266. 

Hades, or Pluto, 150. 

Ha'dri-an, emperor, 274, 288, 

Hahn'e-mann, Dr., 643. 

Hal'i-don Hill, battle of, 367. 

Hallam. Henry, 535. 

Hal'ler, 643. 

Hal'ley, 506. 

Ha'lys. boundary of Lydia, 42. 

Hamburg, 432. 

Ha-mil'car. defeat of. 207; genius of, 208; 
hatred of the Romnns, 209. 

Ham'ites, descendants of Ham, 18, 24, 45. 

Hamitic nations, 20, 24. 

Hampden, John. 484, 485. 

Hampden, John (Jun.), 596. 

Handel, George Frederick, 529. 

Han'ni-bal. takes an oath of enmity 
against the Romans, 209; in command 
of the army, 209; captures Saguntum 
crosses the Pyrenees and the Alps, 
209; defeates the Romans at the Tici 
nus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasimenus 
209; his victory at Cannae, 210; his re 
call and defeat at Zama, 212; assists 
Antiochus against the Romans, 213 
his death, 213. n. 

Hanover, 510, 518. 

Hansa, or Hanseatic League, 432, 436. 



Hanse Towns, 582. 

Hans Sachs, 435. 

Hapsburg, house of, 427. 

Har'fleur, 358, 396. 

Hargreaves, James, 527. 

Har-mo'di-us, 98. 

Harold, king of England, 335. 

Ha'roun al Rasch'id, caliph, 329. 

Harpies, 150. 

Ha-rus'pi-ces, 260. 

Harvey, 506. 

Has'dru-bal, brother of Hannibal, de- 
feated and slain, 212. 

Hasdrubal, defense of Carthage by, 217. 

Hastings, battle of, 335. 

Hastings, Warren, 513. 

Hav'e-lock, general, 520, 655. 

Hawkins, admiral, 471. 

Haydn {ha'dn), 640. 

Haz'a-el, king of Syria, 65. 

He'be, 150. 

Hebrews, a Semitic nation, 20; history 
of, 66. 

Hec'tor, son of Priam, 90. 

Hegel (ha'gel), 646. 

He gi'ra, era of the, 21, 325. 

Heine (hi'neh), 646. 

Helen, wife of Menelaus, 90. 

He-li-op'o-lis. See Baalbec. 

Hel'las, states of, 85. 

Hel-le'nes, land of the, 85; migration of, 
89. 

He'lots, revolt of, 107. 

Helvetians, 437. 

He'mans, Felicia D., 532. 

Henrietta Maria, 471. 

Henry of Burgundy, 4.50. 

Henry, duke of Lancaster, 366. 

Henry I. of England, 342. 

Henry II. " 350. 

Henry III. " 858. 

Henry IV. " 367. 

Henry V. " 367. 

Henry VI. " 368. 

Henry VII. " 372, 461. 

Henry VIII. " 463. 

Henry I. of France, 381. 

Henry II. " 546. 

Henry III. " 548, 625. 

Henry IV. " 553, 565. 

Henry I. of Germany, 419. 

Henry II. " 421. 

Henry III. " 422. 

Henry IV. " 423. 

Henry V. '' 424, 432. 

Henry VI. " 428. 

Henry of Huntingdon, 345. 

Henry, king of C!astile, 449. 

Henry, prince, the Navigator, 459. 

He-phges'tos, worship of, 147. 

Hep-tan'o-mis. situation of, 53. 

Hep'tar-chy, 324. 

Her-a-clei'dae, return of the, 92, 96 

He-rac'li-us, emperor, 305. 

Her-cu-la'ne-um, destruction of, 273. 

Her'cu-les, 89, 95; worship of, 150. 

Her'der, 645. 

He're, worship of, 148. 



Index. 



671 



Her'mann, 431. 

Hermann the Cripple, 434» 

Her'mes, his attributes J how repre- 
sented, 148. 

Her'od the Great, 69. 

He-rod'o-tus, 22, 45; visit tiO Tjxe, 63; 
his history, 157. 

Herrick. Robert, 507. 

Herschel, Sir William, 530,. 

Her'u-U, 287. 

He'si-od, poems of, 155. 

Hes'ti-a, worship of, 149. 

He-tfe'rae, character of the, 172» 

Hewson, colonel, 502. 

Heyne {hi'neh), 645. 

Heywood, John, 478. 

Hez-e-ki'ah, taken captive, 68. 

Hibernia. 70. 

Hi'e-ro, king of Syracuse, 206, 211. 

Hieroglyi^hics, for what used, and how 
written, 59; how deciphered, 59, n. 

High Commission, court of, 474. 

Hil'de-brand (Gregory VH.), 408, 423, 443. 

Hin'doos, origin of, 18; history of, 70; 
commerce and wealth of, 71. 

Hin-do-stan', peninsula of, 653. 

Hip-par'chus, 97, 98. 

Hip'pi-as, 97, 98, 100. 

Historical Records, among the Chal- 
deans, 36. 

History, defined, 17; how divided. 23; 
philosophy of, 23. 

Hogarth, William, 528. 

Ho-hen-lin'den, battle of, 579. 

Hol'bein (-bine), 641. 

Holland, history of, 612. 

Hol'stein {-stine), 606, 624. 

Holy League, 542. 

Holy Roman Empire, 580, 605. 

Ho'iner, poems of, 90; Greek manners 
described by, 144 ; account of, 155, 

Hong Kong, 521. 

Ho-no'ri-us, emperor of the West, 285; 
his death, 286. 

Hood, Thomas, 534. 

Hooke, 506. 

Hopital (o-pe-tahl), chancellor de 1', 548, 
552. 

Hor'ace, poems of, 2.58. 

Ho-ra'ti-us Co'cles, legend of, 189, 190. 

Ho-she'a, surrenders Samaria, 68. 

Hospitallers, knights, 410. 

Hotel de Ville (i^7), 515. 

House of Commons, 358, 373. 

House of Lords, 488. 

Household Gods, among the Greeks, 
168, n. ; among the Romans, 262. 

Howard, Catharine, 467. 

Howard, Henry, 467. 

Howard, Lord, admiral, 471. 

Hugh the Great. 379, 409. 

Huguenots, 547, 548, 549. 

Humbert I., 616. 

Humboldt, 643. 

Hiune, David, .5^3. 

Hungarian Insurrection, 630. 

Hungarians, 422. 560. 

Hungary, history of, 455. 



Hunnish Empire, 301. 

Huns, invade Europe, 284, 297; ravage 

the Eastern Emi^ire, and invade Gaul, 

286; defeat of, 287. 
Hunter, John, 530. 
Hun-ya'di, king, 4.56. 
Huss, John, 429. 
Huxley, Thomas H., 537. 
Huyghens or Huygens {hi'ghens), 566, 642. 
Hy-das'pes, 123. 
Hyde, Sir Edward, earl of Clarendon, 

492; impeachment of, 494; an author, 

507. 
Hyk'sos, shepherd kings, their rule in 

Egypt, 48. 
Hyph'a-sis, 124. 
Hyp'nos, 149. 



I-a-pyg'i-ans, 181, 182. 

Lax'ar-tes, 123. 

Iceland, 321. ^ 

I-cil'i-an Law, 192. 

I-co'ni-um, 307. 

Il'i-um, 90. 

Il-lyr'i-an Pirates, 208, 

Independents, 487. 

India., invaded by Alexander, 71, 123. 

India Trade, 313, 653. 

Indian Mutiny, 520. 

Indo-Europeans, 18. 

Indus River, 123. 

Industrial Arts in England, 526. 

Ingelow, Jean, 536. 

In'ker-man, battle of, 519. 

Innocent III., pope, 355, 356, 384, 413, 415. 

Interregnum, the great, 427. 

Invincible Armada, 471. 

I-o'ni-a, 92. 

Ionian Colonies, 86; revolt of, 99. 

lonians, 86. 

Ionic Order of Architecture, 164. 

Ip'sus, battle of, 127. 

I'ran, plateau of, 18; nations of, 41. 

Ireland, early history of , 352 ; conquest 
of, 353; reduced by Ireton, 499; consti- 
tutionally united to Great Britain, 514. 

Ire'ton, 489. 

I'ris, 150. 

Irish Church, disestablishment of, 522. 

Irish Land Bill, 522, .523. 

Ir-koutsk' (-kootsk), foundation of, 628. 

Iron Cro\\'n of the Lombards, 304. 

Isabella, queen of Castile, 449. 

Isabella, queen of England, 361, 362, 388. 

Isabella II., queen of Spain, 619. 

Islam, 326. 

Ismail Pacha (is-mah'eel pa-shaw'), 634. 

I-soc'ra-tes, orator, 160. 

Is-pa-han', 307. 

Is'ra-el, kingdom of, 69; destruction of, 
68. 

Israelites, in Egj^t, 48. 

Is'sus, battle of, 120 

Isth'mi-an Games, 1.53. 

Italian Republics, 426. 

It'a-lo-Celtic Races, 299. 



672 



Index. 



Italy, early history of, 181, 439; races of, 
183; conquest of, 202; population of, 
220; northern, 439; southern, 442; pa- 
pal, 444; state of society in, 445; 
republics of northern, 439; dialects of, 
447; modern history of, 615; a united 
kingdom, 610. 

Ith'a-ca, 90. 

Ivan III. (e'mn), 628. 

Ivry (eey're), battle of, 553. 



Jacob, 66. 

Jac'o-bin Club, Paris, 574. 

Jac'o-bites, 508. 

Jacquard (zhak-kar'), 639. 

Jacquerie (zhak'er-e), 394. 

Jaffa, 578. 

Jamaica, taken by the English, 491. 

James, duke ot York, defeats the Dutch, 
493; king of England, 496; flight to 
France, 498; defeated in Ireland, 499. 

James I. of England, 478. 

James II. " 496. 

James IV. of Scotland, 464. 

Jamestown, settlement of, 480. 

Ja-nic'u-lan Hill, fortified, 185. 

Ja'nus, temple of, erected, 185; con- 
stantly open in time of war, 204; closed 
for the third time, 243; described, 250. 

Japan, discovery of, 620; history of, 652. 

Jean de Gerson (zhdr-song'), 404. 

Jeffrey, Lord, 535. 

Jeffries, judge, 497. 

Jehan de Joinville {zhwahng-veel')^ 392. 

Je-hoi'a-kim, subdued by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 29; date and length of reign, 83. 

Je-hosh'a-phat, reign of, 68. 

Jemmappes {zhem-map'), battle of, 575. 

Jena, battle at, 580, 611. 

Jenner, Edward, 530. 

Jer-o-bo'am, first king of .Israel, 67. 

Jerome of Prague, 430. 

Je-ru'sa-lem. plundered by Shishak, 49; 
taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 68; temple 
of rebuilt, 68; taken by Pompey, 231; 
destroyed by Titus, 273; atternpt to 
rebuild the temple, 283, n. ; taken by 

/ the Saracens, 305, 326; by the Crusad- 
ers, 410; kingdom of, 410; taken by 
Saladin, 412. 

Jews, persecution of, 388; expelled from 
Spain, 450. 

John of Damascus, 312. 

John, Don, of Austria, 632. 

John, king of England, 355. 

John, king of France, 393, 394. 

John of Gaunt, 366, 367, 461. 

John of Suabia, 428. 

John I., king of Portugal, 450. 

John II. of Portugal, 450. 

John VI. " 620. 

John IV., duke of Braganza, 620. 

Johnson, general, 510. 

Johnson, Samuel, 531, 532. 

Jones, Inigo, 505. 

Jonson, Ben, 506. 



Joseph, son of Jacob, 48. 

Joseph I. of Portugal, 620. 

Josephine, empress, 582. 

Jo-se'phus, 161. 

Josh'u-a, 66. 

Jo'vi-an, Roman emperor, 283, 288. 

Ju'ba, king of Mauritania, 237. 

Ju'dah, kingdom of, 07, 68. 

Ju'das Mac-ca-be'us, revolt of the Jews 
under, 69. 

Ju-de'a, a Roman province, 69; kingdom 
of made subject to the Romans, 231. 

Judicial Combat, 349, 373. 

Ju-gur'tha, his crimes, 223; war against 
him, 224; his capture and death, 224. 

Julia, daughter of Caesar, given in mar- 
riage to Pompey, 233. 

Ju'li-an the Apostate, his education, 284; 
attempts to reinstate paganism, 284; 
undertakes to rebuild the temple of 
Jerusalem, 283; his death, 283. 

Ju'li-us Cse'sar. See Coescvr. 

Julius Nepos, emperor, 288. 

Julius II., pope, 542. 

Ju'no, worship of, 148; temple of, 164. 

Junot (zhoo-no'), general, 581, 621. 

Jupiter Capitolinus, temple of, 186. 

Jury, trial by, 373. 

Jus-tin'i-an, emperor, 302. 

Jutes, 322. 

Ju've-nal, Roman poet, 258. 



Kairwahn (kare'wahn), 327, 330. 

Kant, 645. 

Kar'nak, great hall of, 48; temple of, 138, 

Keats, John, 533. 

Kempis, Thomas a, 404. 

Kenilworth, castle of, 477. 

Kepler, 642. 

Kha'led, 426. 

Khiva (ke'vah), conquest of, 630, 655. 

Kho'kan, 055. 

Khor'sa-bad, temple at, 32; ruins of, 32; 

inscriptions found therein, 32. 
Khos'i-u, 305. 
Kiel (keel), treaty of, 024. 
Kingslev, Charles, 536. 
Kleber (kla'ber), 578. 
Klopstock, 645. 
Knight-errantry, 349. 
Knighthood, 345, 340, 348. 
Knights, Hospitallers, 410; Templars,410. 
Knowles, J. Sheridan, 532. 
Kon-rad'in, 426. 
Koran, 326. 

Kos-ci-us'ko, Thaddeus, 626, 027. 
Kossuth iknsh'shoot), 008. 
Kranach (krah'nak), Louis, 641. 
Kron'os, 149. 



Lab'a-rum, standard of the cross, de- 
scription of, 281, 282. 

Lac-e-da?'mon, conquered by the Dori- 
ans, 93. 



Index. 



673 



La-co'ni-a, one of the states of Pelopon- 
nesus, 85; increased by the annexa- 
tion of Messenia, 95. 

Lae-vi'nus, consul, 20:2. 

Lafaj-ette {lah-fa-et'), 573, 574, 587. 

La Fontaine {foii-t(<in'}, 507'. 

La Hogue (hog), battle of, 499. 

Lam'ar-tlne (-teen), 588. 

Lamb, Charles, 535. 

Lambert, Sinmel, 562. 

La'mi-a, battle of, 125. 

Lamian War, its cause, 125; termination 
of, 126. 

Landon, Letitia E., 534. 

Langton, 356. 

Language and Literature, of the Egyp- 
tians, 59; of the Phoenicians, 64; of the 
Hindoos, 70; of the Chinese, 73; of the 
Persians, 80; of the Greeks, 154; of the 
Romans, 257. 

Languages, classification of, 19. 

Languedoc {long-gha-doc'), ceded to 
France, 384. 

Lantern of Demosthenes, 164. 

Laotse (low-tsa' ),rel\gious system found- 
ed by, 74. 

La Place (pia/ts), 287. 

La Plata (plah'tah), 657. 

Laps, 299. 

La' res, worship of, 168. 

Lars Por'sen-na, war of against Rome, 
189; legends relating to, 190. 

Lat'i-mer, 469. 

Latin Emperors, 308, 414. 

Latin Principalities in the East, 410. 

Latins, 181; tribes of, 184; customs of, 
181, n. ^ 

Latium (lah'she-iun), headship of, 184; 
annexed to the Roman territory, 201. 

Laud, Archbishop, 483, 484. 

Lavater (lah-rah'ter), 643. 

Lavoisier (lah-vwaJi-ze-a'}, 569. 

Law, John, 562. 

Layard, explorations by, 27. 

League of the Public Good, 399. 

Learning, Saracenic, 331 ; Anglo-Saxon, 
337; Norman, 345; in Germany, 432; in 
England, 468, 506, 531 ; in France, 402, 
594. 

Leeds, 504. 

Legendre (luh-zhond''r'), 569. 

Legion, Roman, how composed, 267; 
changes in, 267, n. 

Legionaries, how armed, 268. 

Legnano (len-yah'no), battle of, 425. 

Leil)nitz (Ube'nits), 642. 

Leicester iles'ter), earl of. 477. 

Leipsic (Upe'sic), battle of, 584. 

Lel'e-ges. 88. 

Lem-u-ra'li-a, 261. 

Lenthal, speaker, 484. 

Leo, Bishop of Rome, 287. 

Leo III., pope, 318. 

Leo X., pope, 465. 

Leonardo da "Vinci (rm'c7ie), 446. 

Le-on'i-das, withstands the Persian host, 
at Thermopylae, 101 ; his death. 102. 

Leopold I., eniperor, 004. 



Leopold I., king of Belgium, 613. 

Leopold II., 613. 

Le-os'the nes, victories of, 125; defeat of, 
126. 

Le-pan'to, battle of, 632. 

Lep'i-dus, member of the second trium- 
virate, 241 : deposed, 242. 

Ler'mon-toff, Russian poet, 646. 

Le Sage {sazh), 568. 

Les'bos, island of, 86; revolt of from 
Athens, 109. 

Lescot iles-co'), Pierre, 552. 

Les'sing, 645. 

Leuc'tra, battle of, 115. 

Lew'es, battle of, 358. 

Libations, 151. 

Lib'i-us, Severus, emperor, 288. 

Lib'y-a, under the rule of Ptolemy, 137. 

Li-cin'i-an Laws, passed, 196, 199; le- 
vived by Tiberius Gracchus, 221 ; at- 
tempt to revive them by Csesai'; 237. 

Liebig (le'big). 643. 

Li-gu'ri-an.s, 18i. 

Lima (le'maJi), 657. 

Lind'say, earl of, 485. 

Lin'gar'd, John, 535. 

Lin-na3'us, 643. 

Literature, Egyptian, 59; Phoenician, 64; 
Chinese, 74; Greek, 154; Roman, 257; 
Byzantine, 316; English, 345, 376, 4',^ 
506, 531; French, 391, 404; German. 434; 
Italian, 446; Spanish, 451; Portugues-e. 
451 ; general of Europe, 643. 

Lith-u-a'ni-a. 625. 

Liverpool, 216. 

Livingstone, Dr., 522. 

Liv'y, Roman historian, 258. 

Llewellyn (floo-el'lin), king of Wales. 
359. 

Loch Lev'in, 473. 

Lo'cris, East and West, 85. 

Lombard League, 439, 441. 

Lombards, 299, 304, 318. 

Lombardy, cities of, 425; league of, 44; 
ceded to Italy, 590. 

London. 432; great fire at, 504; univer- 
sity of, 525. 

Lon-gi'nus, minister of Zenobia, 277 

Lorenzo de' Medici (med'e-che), 447. 

Lorraine', cardinal, 547. 

Lorraine, duke of, 409. 

Lo-thaire', 320. 

Lothaire of Saxony, 424. 

Louis of Bavaria, 428. 

Louisbui'g. fortress of, 509. 

Louis, count of Flanders, 395. 

Louis le Debonnaire, 319. 

Louis VI. of France, 382. 

Louis VII. " aS2, 411. 

Louis VIII. " 384. 

Louis IX. " 384, 385, 415. 

Louis X. " 387. 

Louis XI. " 398. 

Louis XII. " 541. 

Louis XIII. " 555. 

Louis XIV. " 556. 

Louis XV. " 561. 

i^ouis XVI. " 570. 



674 



Index. 



Louis XVII. of France, 585. 

Loiiis XVin. " 585, 586. 

Louis, king of Germanj^ 319. 

Louis the Great, king of Hungary, 456. 

Louis Napoleon. See Nap(jleuit III. 



Louis Philippe {ff-leep'), 587 

of Portugal, ■■^' 
Louvois {loo-vwak'), 558. 



Louis I. of Portugal, iJ2\. 



Lu'beck, city of, 432; treaty of, 603. 

Lu-ca'ni-aus, 203. 

Lu'ci-an, satirist, 161. 

Luck'now, 520. 

Lu-cre'ti-us, Roman poet, 258. 

Lu-cul'lus, his victory over Mithridates, 
226 ; mutiny of his troops, 230. 

Lulli {lool'le), 568. 

Lune'ville, treaty of, 579. 

Lu-per-ca'li-a, 261. 

Lu-si-ta'ui-ans, subdued by the Romans, 
217. 

Lu-te'ti-a, or Paris, 316. 

Luther, Martin, 598, 599, 601. 

Lut'zen, battle of, 584, 603. 

Ly-ce'um, in Greece, 159, 171; in France, 
593. 

Ly-cur'gus, laws of, 93. 

Lyd'i-a and the Lydians, history of, 42; 
annexed to the Persian Empire, 43. 

Ly'ell, Sir Charles, 537. 

Ly-san'der, victory gained by. 111. 

Lys'i-as, orator, 160. 

Ly-sic'ra-tes, monument of, 164. 

Ly-sira'a-chus, Asia Minor, assigned to, 
128; obtains the government of Mace- 
donia, 129; defeated and slain, 129. 

Lytton, Loi-d (Bulwer), 536. 

M 

McCartney, Lord, 652. 

Ma-cau'lay, Thomas B., 536, 

Mac'ca-bees, 69. 

Mac-ca-be'us, Judas, 69. 

Macchiavelli {mak-ke-ah-vel'le), 447. 

Mac-e-do'ni-a, 85; early history of, 117; 
the leading state in Greece, 119; his- 
tory under Alexander, 120; under his 
successors, 126; becomes a Roman 
province, 133, 214, 215. 

Mackintosh, Sir James, 535. 

McMahon, Marshal, 590. .591. 

Ma-cri'nus, emperor, 288. 

Madeira Islands, visited by the Phoeni- 
cians, 63. 

Ma-dras', 504. 

Mae-ce'nas, 258. 

Ma-gel'lan, 475. 

Ma-gen'ta, battle of, 590. 

Magi, their influence, 41, 176; corruptions 

Maglanism, system of, 76. n. 
Magna Charta, 356, 357, 373. 
Magna Grsecia. cities in, 87. 
Mag-ne'si-a, battle of, 136, 214. 
Magyars (mod-yars'), 307, 455. 
Maintenon (mahn-ta-nong), Madame de. 

.5.59. 
Ma-jo'ri-an, emperor, 288. 



Malacca, 620. 

Malplaquet (nial-plah'ka), battle of, 501. 

Malsherbes (>nal-zdrb'), 570, 595. 

Malta, 632. 

Mam'e-lukes, 578. 

Mam'er-tines, account of the, 206. 

Man-as'seh, king of Judah, taken prison- 
er, 33. 

ManchesJer, city of, 504. 

Mandeville, Sir John, 376. 

Man'e-tho, fragments of, 23; Egyptian 
dynasties of, 45, 47. 

Manfred, king of Naples and Sicily, 426, 
443. 

Mansard, 569. 

Mansfield, count, 602. 

Mantchou Tartars, 6ij2. 

Man-ti-ne'a, battle of, 115. 

Mau'u-el Com-ne'nus, 411. 

Manufactures, among the Assyrians, 36, 
37; among the Egyptians, 55; the Ph(je- 
nicians, 63; the Greeks, 172; in Eng- 
land, 476, 505. 

Mar-a-cau'da, taken by Alexander, 123. 

Mai'at {mah-rah')^ 575, 576. 

Mar'a-thon, battle of, 100. 

Marcel, 393. 

Mar-cel'Ius, the Shield of Rome, taking 
of Syracuse by, 211. 

Mar'co Po'lo, travels of, 72, 441, 652. 

Mar'cus Au-re'li-us, a stoic, 159; one of 
the five good emperors, 274 ; repels the 
barbarians, 565. 

Mar-do'ni-us, expedition of against the 
Greeks, 100; lieutenant of Xerxes, 102; 
army of defeated by the Greeks, 103 

Marengo, battle of, 579. 

Margaret of Anjou, 368, 370, 371. 

Margaret of Denmark, 622. 

Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, 462. 

Maria da Gloria, 621. 

Maria Louisa, 582. 

Maria Theresa, 509, 604. 

Marie Antoinette (an-hvah-net'), 571, 576. 

Marignano {niah-reen-yah'no), battle of, 

Marigny (maJi-reen'ye), 387. 

Mariotte (mah-re-of), 569. 

Ma'ri-us, his rise, 224; carries on tliewar 
against Jugurtha, 224; defeats the 
Cimbri and Teutons, 224, 225; his exile, 
227; war with Sulla, 228; his death, 
228. 

Marlborough, duke of, 500, .501. 

Marot (mah-ro'), Clement, 552. 

Marriage, among the Greeks, 171 ; among 
the Romans, 263. 

Marston Moor, battle of, 486. 

Martin V., pope, 429. 

Martin Luther. See Luther. 

Mary of Burgundy, 399, 430. 

Mary, queen of England, 468. 
i Mary, queen of Scots, 472, 473, 547. 

Mas-in-is'sa, king of Numidia, 216. 

Massachusetts, settlement of, 483. 
I Mas-sag'e-tfe. 75. 
I Mas-sa'li-a, Grecian colony of, 87. 
1 Massillon {mas-seel-yong'), 568. 



Index, 



675 



Massinger, Philip, 506. 

Matilda, wife of Henry I., Z\\. 

Matilda, queen (^)f England, S41. 

Mat'isys, Cjuentin, Wl. 

Mattlxias, king of Hungary, 450. 

Maurice, elector of Saxony, 540, 601. 

Mav-ro-cor-da'to, 0.^5. 

Max-ini'i-an, emperor, 278, 288. 

Max-i-mil'i-an 1., emperor, 480, 431, 464, 
598. 

Maximilian, archduke, 590, 656. 

Max'i-min, emperor, 278, 288. 

Max'i-mus 1., emperor, 288. 

Maximus II., emperor, 288. 

Ma^enneU/ta-eu'j, duke of, 553. 

Mazarin {inah-zah-reen'), cardinal, 557. 

Medes, history of, 40. 

Me'di-a, 40. 

Median Civilization, 41. 

Medici {med'e-che), Catharine de', 546, 
548, 549; Lorenzo de', 540; Mary de', 
555, 556, 567. 

Mee'rut, mutiny at, 520. 

Meg'a-ris, 85. 

Mehemet Ah (ma'hem-et ah'le), 634. 

Meis'tersingers, 435. 

Me-lanch'thon, Philip, 600. 

Mem'non, statue of, 52. 

Memnon, the Pthodian, 120. 

Mem'phis, city of, 47; capital of Hep- 
tanomis, 53. 

Me-nan'der, comedies of, 159. 

Men'dels-sohu, 540. 

Men-e-la'us, king of Sparta, 90. 

Men'shi-koff, 629. 

Mer'cu-ry. See Hermes. 

Mer'i-vale, Rev. Charles, 537. 

Mer'o-e, city of, 60. 

Mer-o-vin'gians, 317. 

Mer-o-vae'us, 317. 

Mes'mer. 643. 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, situation of, 27; con- 
quest of by the Romans, 278. 

Mes-sa'na, 87; taken by the Mamertines, 
206. 

Mes-sa'pi-a, 181. 

Mes-se'ne, captured by the Achaeans,133. 

Mes-se'ni-a, 85. 

Messenians. revolt of, 133. 

Messenian Wars, 95. 

Met-a-sta'si-o, 644. 

Me-tel'lus, consul. 207. 

Methodists, rise of, 524. 

Metz, surrender of, 591. 

Mexico, occupied by the French, 590; 
history of, 656. 

Meyerbeer (mi'er-bdr), 640. 

Michael An'ge-lo, 641. 

Michelet (meesh'la). .595. 

Mi-cip'sa. king of Numidia, 223. 

Mi'das, king of Phrvgia, 41. 

Middle English. 376. 

Mil'an, taken by the French, 541. 

Mi-le'tus, importance of, 86; insurrec- 
tion at, 99; taken by the Persians, 100. 

Mihtary School, French, 566. 

Military System of the Romans, 548. 

Military Tribunes, 196. 



Mill, John Stuart, 537. 
.Millemiium, era of, 381. 
Miller, Hugli, 537. 

Mil-ti'a-des, defeats the Persians at Mar- 
athon, 100; his career and death, 

101, n. 
Milton, John, 490, 507. 
Minden, battle of, 562. 
Mi-ner'va. See Athene. 
Min'ne-singers, 4:^4. 
Minstrel, ISorman, 345. 
Mirabeau (lue-rak-bo'), 572. 
Mississippi Scheme, 561. 
Mis-so-lon'ghi (-yhe), siege of, 635. 
Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pontus, 136; his 

character and accomplishments, 225; 

war with the Romans, 226; his defeat 

and death, 226. 
Moawij^ah {mo-ah-we'yah), 327. 
Mce'si-a, annexed to the Roman Empire, 

272 ; attacked by the barljarians, 284. 
Mogiils, 652. 

Mo-ham'med, 324, 325, 326. 
Mohammed U. (the Conqueror), 310, 458, 

631. 
Mol-da'vi-a, 4.56, 519. 
Moliere {lao-lyare'), 567. 
Momm'sen, 646. 
Monckton, colonel, 510. 
Mongols, 309. 

Monk, general, 489, 492, 494. 
Monmouth, duke of, 496, 497. 
Montaigne imon-tain'), Michel de, 552. 
Montcalm (7^iOM^A:a/l?H^), marquis of , 510. 
Montesquieu (inon-tes-ku'), 569. 
Montgomery, James, 534. 
Mont-mo-ren'cy, duke of. Constable, 54( ; 

execution of, 556. 
Moore, Sir John, 515. 
Moore, Thomas, 534. 
Moors, sack of Rome by, 287; ongm of, 

328; in Spain, 331: expulsion of, 61.. 
Moral Plavs, 376, 402. 
More, Sir Thomas, 466, 478. , 

Mo-re'a,origin of the name,313;acqiurea 

by Venice, 441. 
Moreau (mo-ro'), general. 579, 584. 
Mor'gar-ten, battle of, 438. 
Morse, professor, 530. 
Mor'ti-mer. Edmund, 367. 
Mortimer, English Imron, 362. 
Mos'chus. poems of. 160. 
Moscow, burning of, 583. 
Moses, 66. 

Mos'heim (-hime), 644. 
Moslems, 326. 

Mount Tabor, battle of, 5<8. 
Mountain Pai-ty, 575. 
Mo'zart, 640. - <oa -mn 

Mu'ci-us Scop'vo-la, legend of, 189, lyu. 
Muhl'berg, battle of, 601. 
Miiller, John. 435. . , ,„„ 
Mum'mi-us, takes Cormth, 133 _ 
Murat imu-rah'), genera. 5.8: kmg ot 

Naples. 581 ; execution of, 586. 
Mu-ra-to'ri {-re), 644. 
Murillo (vioo-rccryo), 641. 
Murray, regent of Scotland, 473. 



676 



indeo^i 



Musa, Saracen general, 328. 

Music, among the Greeks, 173; in Italy 
and Germany, 447, 448; progress in, 
039. 

Musical Composers, 639, 640. 

Myc'a-le, battle of, 1U3. 

My-ce'na;, ancient kingdom of. 89; ruins 
of, 145; remains found at, 162; gate- 
way of the ancient city of, 165. 

My'ron, sculpture of, 165. 

Mysteries, or Miracle Plays, 376, 402. 

Mythology, of the Greeks, 146; of the 
Romans, 258. 



N 

Na-bo-na'di-us, defeat of, 30. 

Na-bo-nas'sar, era of, 21, 29. 

Na-bo-po-las'sar, reign of, 29; joins with 
the Medes against Nineveh, 34. 

Na'dir Shah, 655. 

Naj'vi-us, Roman poet, 220. 

Nana Saliilj (sali'eeb), 520. 

Nancy, battle of, 399. 

Nantes {n(uit.s), edict of, 554, 500, 564. 

Napier (nn'pe-er), Sir Charles, 519. 

Naples, 400, 442,541. 

Napoleon I., 562, 577, 578, 579, 586, 

Napoleon II., 589. 

Napoleon III., 588, 589. 

Nar'ses, 303. 

Nar'va, battle of. 628. 

Nase'by, battle of, 486. 

Na-si'ca, Publius Scipio, 220. 

National Assembly, French, 571. 

National Convention, French, 574. 

Nations, origin of, 299. 

Navarino (nah-vah-re'no), battle of, 577, 
634, 635. 

Navarre {nah-var'), province of, 379. 

Navarrete {nah-var-ra'ta), battle of, 395. 

Navigation Act, 489. 

Ne-an'der, 646. 

Ne-ar'chus, voyage of, 124. 

Neb-u-chad-nez'zar, his conquests, 29; 
his death. 30. 

Ne'cho, or iSTe-ka'o, reign of, 50. 

Neck'er, 571, .572. 

Nelson, 514, 578, 624. 

Ne-me'an Games, 153. 

Nep'tune. See Poseidon. 

Nero, emi>eror, 272, n. 

Ner'va. one of the " Five Good Empe- 
rors," 274. 

Nes'tor, 145. 

Netherlands, 430; history of, 611; king- 
dom of, 613. 

Netherlands, New, taken by the English, 
493. 

Netherlands, Spanish, 494. 

Neu'stri-a. 317. 

NeviHe's Cross, battle of, 363 

Newbury, battle of, 486. 

New Gra-na'da, 618. 

New Netherlands, 495, 

New Rome, 278. 

Newspapers, 567. 

Newton, 506. 



Ney (na). Marshal, 584, 585, 586. 

Nice (nees), comicil of, 282; capital of 

Roum, 307; taken by the Crusaders, 

307, 409; battle of, 409; capital of the 

Greek emperors, 308. 
Nicholas of Cusa, 435. 
Nicholas, emperor of Russia, 630. 
Ni'ci-as, defeat of, 110. 
Nic-o-me'des, king of Pergamus, 142, 
Ni-eop'o-Us, battle of, 430. 
Niebelungen-lied ( ne-bel-oon' gen-leed ), 

434. 
Niebuhr {ne'hoor). 646 
NihiUsts, 631. 

Nile, battle of the, 514, 578. 
Nin'e-veh, situation of, 31; destruction 

of, 34. 
Nis'sa, battle of, 430. 
Normandy, settlement of, 321 ; dukes of, 

321; province of, 379; conquest of, 396. 
Normans, origin of, 320; mode of warfare, 

343; expel the Saracens from south 

Italy, 439. 
Norsemen, or Northmen, 321, 
Northampton, battle of, 370. 
Northern War, 623. 
North German Confederation, 607, 
Northumberland, duke of, 468. 
Norway, history of, 624. 
Norwich {nor'rij), 504. 
Notables, assembly of the, 563. 
Noureddin (noor-ed-deeti'), 411, 412. 
Nov'go-rod, 432, 627. 
Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us, reign of, 185, 187. 
Nu-man'ti-a, taken by the Romans, 819. 
Nu-mid'i-a, a Roman province, 237. 
Nu'rem-berg, peace of, 600. 



Gates, Titus, 495. 

Obelisk, 57, n. 

Observatory, Paris, 566. 

O-ce'a-nus, 149. 

O'Connell, Daniel, 517. 

Oc-ta'vi-us Caz-sar, heir to Julius Caesar, 
240; forms the second triumvirate, 241 ; 
with Antony defeats Brutus and Cas- 
sius, 242; defeats Antony and Cleo- 
patra, 243; receives the title of 
Augustus, 243. See Augustus Casar. 

O-den-a'thus, prince of Palmyra, 276. 

Od-o-a'cer, king of Italy, 282, 302. 

O'Donnell, general, 586. 

Oersted, or Orsted (er'sted), 643. 

O'gle-thorpe, general, 508. 

Ojeda (o ha'dcdi), 657. 

Oliver Clisson (klees-song'), 395. 

0-lyb'ri-us, emperor, 290. 

O-lym'pi-a, 93; oracle of, 154, 

Olympiads, 21, 93. 

Olympic Festival, 152. 

Olympvis, gods of, 146. 

O-iyn'thus, taken by Philip, 118. 

Ommiyades (om-me'yahds), 327. 

O-nei'ros, 149. 

Oracles, Greek, 1.53. 

Ordeal, of the Saxons, 349. 



Index. 



677 



Orders, military. 340. 

OreUana (u-rel-i/aJi'ndJt), 656. 

O-res'tes, 287. 

Orleans, duke of (figalite), 576. 

Orleans, siege of, 396. 

Or'muzd, 80. 

0-ron'tes, 128. 

Os'cans, 181. 

Oscar I., king of Sweden, 623. 

Oscar II., " " '' 623. 

Os'ti-a, building of, 185. 

Ostracism, 98. 

Ostrogoths, 284, 298, 301. 

Oth'man, 327. 

Otho, German emperor. See Otto. 

O'tho, Roman emperor, 272, n. 

Otho I., king of Greece, 635. 

Ot'ter-burn, battle of, 367. 

Otto I. (or Otho I.), emperor, 420, 439. 

Otto II., emperor, 420, 442. 

Otto III., emperor, 421. 

Otto the Illustrious, 418. 

Ot'to-car, king of Bohemia, 427. 

Ot'to-mans, 309, 457. 

Otway, 507. 

Oud {oivd\ 520. 

Oudenarde (ow'den-ar-da), battle of, 501. 

Oudinot ioo-de-no'), general, 589. 

O'vid, Roman poet, 258. 

Owen Gleiulower, 367. 

Ox'en-stiern, C22. 

Oxford, university of, 334. 



Paes'tum, remains of, 164. 

Painted Porch (Pcje'ci-le Sto'a), 166. 

Painting, among the AssjTians, 36; 
among the Egyptians, 56; the Per- 
sians, 79; the Greeks, 163, 165; in 
France, 402; Italian, 446. 

Pal-ae-ol'o-gus, emperor, 308. 

Palais (pah-Ja) Royal, 565. 

Pal'a-tine Hill, 184. 

Pal'es-tine, 66. 

Pal-my'ra, 67; becomes independent, 
277; ruins of, 277. 

Pan-a-then-a'ic Festival, 152. 

Pandects of Justinian. 311. 

Pan-no'ni-a, attacked by the barbarians, 
283; Avars in. 318. 

Pantheon, building of. 566. 

Papal Power, in Italy, 590. 

Paph-la-go'ni-a, history of, 142. 

Paraguay (pah-rah-giva'), 657. 

Pariahs, 70. 

Parian Marble. 21. 

Paris, son of Priam, 90. 

Paris, city of, 316. 403, 584. 

Parliament, English, under Charles I., 
482; Long, 483; Barebone's, 490. 

Parliament, of Paris. 563. 

Par-men'i-des, doctrines of, 156. 

Parr, Catharine, 467. 

Par-rha'si-us, paintings of, 166. 

Par'sees, 80. 

Par'the-non, 106, 164, 



Par'thi-ans, kingdom of the, formation 
of, \'M\ history of, 143; victory over 

* Crassus, 2:^3: defeated by Cassius, 234: 
defeated b^^ Severus, 275; overtuined 
by the Persians, 296. 

Pa-sar'ga-dae, tribe of the, 75; city of, 79. 

Pas-cal', 568. 

Passau iimti'soiv), treaty of, 546, 601. 

Passion Play, 402. 

Paul HI., pope, 600. 

Paul, emperor of Russia, 630. 

Pau-sa'ni-as, assassinates Philip, 119. 

Pausanias, treason of, 103; death of. 104 

Pavia (2Juh-re'<ik), taken by the bar- 
barians, 287; capital of the Lom- 
bards, 302; burnt by Henry II., 441; 
battle of, 540. 

Peace of God, 422. 

Pedro v., king of Portugal, 621. 

Pekin, taken by the English and French, 
521. 

Pe-las'gi, 88. 

Pelissier ( pa-Us-se-a'), marshal, 589. 

Pe-lop'i-das, 115. 

Pel-o-pon-ne'si-an War, 108. 

Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, 85. 

Pe'lops, 91. 

Pe-lu'si-um, battle of, 51. 

Pe-na'tes, 168, n. 

Peninsular War, 515, 582. 

Penn, admiral, 491. 

Penn, William, 503. 

Pep'in d'Heristal (da-ris-tahV), 317. 

Pepin the Short, 318. 

Percy. Harry (Hotspur), 367. 

Per-dic'cas, regent, 124; league against 
him, 126; assassinated, 127. 

Per'gamus, kingdom of. 136, 141. 

Pe-ri-an'der, tyrant of Corinth, 99. 

Per'i-cles, administration of, 106; his 
genius, 107; description, 107, n. 

Per-i-pa-tet'ic School, 159. 

Perkin Warbeck, 462. 

Perrault iper-ro'), Claude, 569. 

Perry, commodore, 653. 

Per-seph'o-ne, 153. 

Per-sep'o-lis, description of, 79; taken 
by Alexander, 123. 

Per'seus (-ause), deified hero, 150. 

Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 
taken prisoner by the Romans, i:33, 
21.5. 

Per'se-us, Roman poet. 258. 

Persia, defeated by Heraclius, 305; con- 
quered bv the Saracens. :i05, 327; war 
between England and, 520; modern 
history of, 654. 

Persian" Monarchy, New. 143; overturns 
the Parthian Empire, 276. 

Persians, origin of, 74: revolt from the 
Medes, 75; empire of founded by Cy- 
rus, 75; civilization of, 78. 

Per'ti-nax, emperor, 288. 

Peru, 656. 

Pes-ta-loz'zi (-lot'ze), 645. 

Peter of Aragon, 386. 

Peter the Cruel, 448. 

Peter the Great, 628. 



678 



Index. 



Peter the Hermit, 408, 409. 

Petition of Riglit, 482. 

Petrarch ( pe'trm-k), 444, 447. 

Phar-na'ces, defeated by Cassar, 236. 

Pha'ros, description of, 138. 

Pliar-sa'li-a, battle of, 235. 

Phi'di-as, works of, 1G4, 165. 

Pliilip, emperor, 288. 

PhiUp I. of France, 382. 

Philip II. " 382, 383, 412. 

Philip III. " 385, 386. 

Philip IV. " 386. 

Philip V. " 388. 

Philip VI. " 392. 

Philip, king of Macedon, rise of, 116; 
education, 117; intrigues of, 118; inter- 
ference in the affairs of Greece, 118; 
general of the Amphictyons, 119; as- 
sassinated, 119. 

Philip II. of Macedon, his schemes of 
conquest, 214; defeated Ly the Ro- 
mans, 215. 

Philip II. of Spain, 479, 616. 

Philip III. " 618. 

Philip IV. " 618. 

Philip V. " 618. 

Philippa, queen, 363. 

Philippe de Comines (fe-leep' duh ko- 
rneen'), 404. 

Phil-ip'pi, battle of, 242. 

Pliil-ip-pop'o-hs, battle of, 284. 

Phil-is'ti-a, 66. 

Philistines (fe-lis'tins), 61, 66. 

Philology, Comparative, its application 
to history, 17. 

Phil-o-poe'men, his career, 132; his death 
and character, 133. 

Pho'ci-ans, war against the, 118. 

Pho'ci-on, his administration at Athens, 
125. 

Pho'cis. 85. 

Phoe-ni'ci-a, situation, cities, and colo- 
nies, 61 ; conquest of by the Assy- 
rians, 62; commerce of, 63; civiliza- 
tion of, 64. 

Phrv'gi-a, kingdom of, 41. 

Phy'le, fortress of, taken by Thrasybu- 
lus, 111. 

Piccini (peet-che'ne), 640. 

Pillars of Hercules, 63. 

Pin'dar, poems of, 156. 

Pins, making of. 476. 

Pisa ( pe'zah), 446. 

Pisano (pe-zah'no), Nicola, 446. 

Pi-sis-trat'i-dse, rule of, 97; conspiracy 
against, 98. 

Pi-sis'tra-tus, usurpation of, 97. 

Pitt, William, earl of Chatham, 510, 512. 

Pitt, William, the Younger, 514. 
Pius VII., pope, 582. 
Pius IX., pope, 588, 589. 
Pi-zar'ro, Francisco, 6.57. 
Pla-cid'i-a, mother of Valentinian, 286. 
Plague, in England. 363, 494. 
Plan-tag'e-net (-faj-), Geoffrey, 341. 
Plantagenet, Henry, 342. 
Pla-ta?'a, battle of, 103; defense of 
against the Spartans, 109. 



Pla'to, disciple of Socrates, 112; his 
teachings and writings, 158. 

Plau'tus, comedies of, 220, 257. 

Playing Cards, invention of, 402. 

Plu'tarch, his Lives, 161. 

Plu'to. See Hades. 

Plymouth, settlement of, 481. 

Poitiers {poi-teerz'), battle of, 364. 

Poland, a kingdom, 421; connected with 
Hungary, 456; partition of, 611; his- 
tory of, 625; insurrection in, 630. 

Pole, cardinal, 469. 

Pollok, Robert 534. 

Poltava ipol-tah'vah), battle of, 623, 629. 

Po-lyb'i-us, his character of Philopue- 
men, 133; his wi'itings, 161. 

Pol-y-cle'tus, 165. 

Pol-yg-no'tus, 165. 

Pol-y-sper'chon, regent of Macedonia, 
127. 

Pom'pa-dour, Madame de, 563, 566. 

Pompeii (po//i-pa'i/e), destruction of, 273. 

Pom'pey the Great, overcomes Tigranes 
and Mithridates, 226 ; his rise to power, 
230; reduces Pontus, Syria, and Judea, 
231; his triumph, 232; member of the 
first triumvirate, 233 ; master of Rome, 
234; defeated by Caesar, 235; assassi- 
nated, 235. 

Po-ni-a-tow'ski, prince, 626. 

Pon'tus, history of, 142. 

Pope, Alexander, 507. 

Pope's Kaiser, 429. 

Popish Plot, 495. 

Por'ci-us Cato, 216. 

Por'sen-na or Por-sen'na, 189, 190. 

Portugal, history of in the Middle Ages, 
450; maritime enterprises of, 451; de- 
clared a French province, 581 ; modern 
history of. 619. 

Portuguese Literature. 451. 

Po'rus. defeated by Alexander, 123. 

Po-sei'don, worship of, 147. 

Postal Service in France, 566. 

Potatoes, introduction of, 477. 

Po-tem'kin, 629. 

Poussin (poos-sang'), .568. 

Pi-aetorian Guards, institution of, 271; 
strengthened by Tiberius, 274; power 
of, 275. 

Prax-it'i-les, 165. 

Presburg, treaty of, 580, 

Presbyterians, 487. 

Pride, colonel, 487. 

Priestley, 530. 

Prim, general, 619. 

Prince Imperial, French, 523. 

Printing, introduced into England, 376; 

into France, 403; invention of , 432. 
Pro-co'pi-us, 312. 
Pro-per'ti-us, Roman poet, 258. 
Pros'er-pine. See Persephone. 
Protestantism. See Reformation. 
Protestants, in France, 555; in Germany, 

.599. 600, 601. 
Provence (pro-vahns'), 379 
Provincial System, Roman, establish 
meut of, 501. 



Index. 



679 



Provincials and Romans, distinction be- 
tween abolished, 558. 

Pru'sa, 309. 

Prussia, historj^ of, 609. 

Psani-uien'i-tus, reign of, 50. 

Psam-inet'i-chus {-kun), reign of, 50. 

Ptol-e-ma'is, 139. 

Ptol'e-uiies, kingdom of, 139. 

Ptol'e-niy, the astronomer and geo- 
grapher, 101. 

Ptolemy Ce-rau'nus, 130. 

Ptolemj^ E-piph'a-nes, 59, n. 

Ptolemy Eu-er'ge-tes, 140. 

Ptolemy Lagi, reign of, 137. 

Ptolemy Phil-a-derphus, 139. 

Pub-lil'i-an Law of Volero, 193. 

Pul, reign of, 28. 

Punic Wars, 206, 209, 215. 

Pun'jab, war m, 519. 

Puritans, origin of, 470; emigration of, 
481, 483; character of, 502. 

Push'kin, 646. 

Pyd'na, battle of, 133, 215. 

Pyramid, the Great, situation of, 53; 
description of, 57. 

Pj-ramids, battle of the, 578. 

Pyr'rhus, king of Epu'us, obtains pos- 
session of JVlacedonia, 129: invades 
Italy, 201; defeated by the Romans, 
202. 

Py-thag'o-ras, doctrines of, 156, 

Pyth'i-a, utterances by, 154. 

Q 

Quakers or Friends, rise of, 503; perse- 
cution of, 503; settlement of in North 
America. 503. 

Quebec, taken by the EngUsh, 510. 

Qucr/tin Mat'sj's, 641. 

Que-ve'do, 642. 

Quincej% Thomas de, 535. 

Quir-i-na'li-a, 261. 



Rabelais (rah-ba-la'), Francis, 552. 
Racine (rah-seen'), 567. 
Raikes, Robert, 525. 

Raleigh (raw'le). Sir Walter, 471, 477, 506. 
Ra-me'ses I., son of, 48. 
Rameses II., reign of, 49. 
Ramillies (ram'e-Ieez), battle of, 501. 
Ram'ni-ans. or Romans, 184. 
Raphael (rah'fa-el), 641. 
Ravaillac (rah-val-voJ^'). 5.55. 
Ravenna. 302, .303. 304. 318. 440. 
Raymond, count of Toulouse. 409. 
Raymond ^a. of Toulouse. 383. 384. 
Reformation, rise of in England. 466; 

in Germany, 599: progress of, 599. 600; 

in Switzerland. 614: in Sweden, 822. 
Reform Bill, in England, 517: second, 520. 
Re-gil'lus, Lake, battle of. 189, 190. 
Reg'u-lus, defeat of, 207; his patriotism, 

207; death, 208. 
Re-ho-bo'am, cartouche of, 49; insolence 

and tyranny of, 67. 



Reign of Terror, in France, 476, 577. 
Religion, of the Chaldaeans and Assyri- 
ans, 38; of the Medes. 41: Egyptians, 
54; Phtjenicians, 64; Hindoos, 70; Chi- 
nese, 74: Persians, 79; Greeks, 145; Ro- 
mans, 2.">8. 
Religious Festivals, among the Greeks, 

151 ; among the Romans, 261. 
Rem'brandt, 641. 

Re'mus, 183. 
Renaissance, 550. 

Renan {re-iiahng'), Ernest, 595. 

Retz (ratcz), cardinal de, 557. 

Revolution, American, 512; French, 572; 
English of 1688, 498. 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 529. 

Rhe'a, Sil'via, 183. 

Rhine, confederation of the, 605. 

Rhodes, 327, 632. 

Rialto (re-ahl'to), 440. 

Richard I. of England. 354, 412, 413. 

Richard II. " 365, 366. 

Richard III. " 372. 

Richard, duke of York, 369. 

Richardson, 533. 

Richelieu {reesh'e-lu\ 555, 556, 603. 

Richmond, earl of, 372. 

Richter (rik'ter), John Paul, 645. 

Ridley, 468, 469. 

Ri-en'zi, 429, 444. 

Rizzio (rit'se-o), 472. 

Robert, count of Flanders, 409. 

Robert, duke of Normandy. 340, 341, 409. 

Robert, king of France, 382. 

Robertson, William, .533. 

Robespierre (ro'bea-peer), 575, 576, 577. 

Rochefoucauld (rosh-foo-ko), 568. 

Rochelle (ro-shel'), 555. 

Roderick, king of the Visigoths, 328. 

Roemer (ro'nter), 566 

Roger I. of Sicily, 443. 

Roger II. " 443. 

Roland, 318. 

Roland, Madame, 576. 

Rollo, duke, a21. 

Roman Eniijire, foimded by Augustus, 
291; divided by Theodosius, 285; wes- 
tern, 297. 

Roman Kingdom, 184. 

Roman Pontiff, temporal dominion of, 
318. 

Roman Republic, 187. 

Romans, origin of the, 184. 

Rome, foundation of, 183; early govern- 
ment, 184; traditionary historj-, 185; 
destruction of. 249: burning of, 274; 
taken bv the Goths. 285; by the Van- 
dals, 287: sacked by the Imperialists, 
545; history of, 444; capital of Italy, 
616. 

Rom'u-lus, birth and education of, 183, 
71..; reign of, 185. 

Romulus, Au-gus'tu-lus, last emperor of 
the West. 287. 

Ron'ces-val'le.s. battle of, 318. 

Rosamond Clifford, 3.54. 

Rosebecque (roue beck), battle of, 395. 

Rosetta Stone, 22, .59, n. 



680 



Index. 



Rosse, Lord, 530. 

Rouen, 396. 

Rouiu (;-ooni), sultanate of, 307. 

Roimdbeads, 485, 50;i. 

Rousseau (roo-6f/), 5U8, 570. 

Rox-a'na, married by Alexander, 123; 

put to death, 127, n. 
Royal Library, at Paris, 395, 402. 
Royal Oak, 481). 
Ru'bens, 505, G41. 
Ru'bi-con, 516. 
Rudolf, Agilcola, 435. 
Rudolf I. of Hapsburg, emperor, 427, 437. 
Rudolf of Suabia, 423. 
Run'ny-mede, 356. 
Rupert, emperor, 429. 
Rupert, prince, 485, 486, 494. 
Ruskin, John, 537. 
Russell, admiral, 499. 
Russell, Lord John, 517. 
Russell, Lord William, 494. 
Russia, history of, 627; commerce of 

with England, 475. 
Russians, 307. 
Rye-House Plot, 496. 
Rys'wick, treaty of, 499. 

S 

Sa-ba'co, or So, 49. 

Sa-bel'li-ans, 181. 

Sa'bines, 181; defeated by the Romans, 
186. 

Sacred Mount, secession of the Romans 
to, 192. 

Sacred War, 118. 

Sad',o-wa {-wah\ battle of, 607. 

Sa-gun'tmn, taken by Hannibal, 209. 

St. Albans (aid'bcms), battle of, 369. 

St. Au-gus-tine' (-teen), 333. 

St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 549. 

St. Ber'nard, 391, 411. 

St. Francis Xavier (zav'e-er), 652. 

St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'), 566. 

St. George, chevalier of, .508. 

St. Germain (z/iar-ma/iny'), palace of, 565. 

St. He-le'na, 586. 

St. Mark, 440. 

St. Patrick, 352. 

St. Petersburg, 628. 

St. Pierre ipe-ar'), Bernardin de, 595. 

St. Quentin, battle of, 547. 

St. Sophia, church <if, 313. 

Sa'is, chief citv of Lower Egypt, 53. 

Sal'a-din, 330, 412, 413. 

Sal-a-man'ca, battle of, 515. 

Sal'a-mis, battJe of, 102. 

Sa-ler'no, 424, 442. 

Salian Franks, 316. 

Salic Law, 388. 

Sal'lust, Roman historian, 258. 

Sa-lo'na, residence of Diocletian at, 278. 

Sal-va'tor Ro'sa, 641, 644. 

Sa-ma'ri-a, taken by Sargon, 32, 68; cap- 
ital of Israel, 67. 

Sam-ni'tes, 181; defeat the Romans, 201; 
submit to the Romans, 202; take up 
arms against Sulla, 228. 



I Sam'ni-um, 202. 

Sam'u-el, the last of the Judges, 66. 

San-cho-ni'a-thon or San-chu-ui'a-thon, 
fragments of his history, 22. 

Sancroft, primate of England, 497. 

Santa Anna, 656. 

Santiago (sdhn-te-ah'go), 657. 

Sappho isaf'fo), poems of, 155. 

Saracen Empire, 329, 330. 

Saracenic Civihzation, 330, 331. 

Saracens, attack the Eastern Empire, 
305; conquest of Persia by, 305; de- 
feated by the Franks,) 317; origin of 
the name, 324 ; conquests of, 326, 327, 
328; commerce, 330, 331; learning, 
331 ; invasion of southern Italy by, 439, 
442. 

Sar'a-cus, king of Assyria, perishes in 
the burning of Nineveh, 34. 

Saratoga, surrender of the English at, 
513. 

Sar-dan-a-pa'lus, 33. 

Saidanapalus II. See Saixicus. 

Sar-din'i-a, island of, taken by the Ro- 
mans, 208; kingdom of, 615. 

Sar'dis, taken by Cyrus, 43; burned by 
the Gi'eeks, 77. 

Sar'gon, reign of, 32. 

Sas-san'i-des, dynasty of, 276; end of, 
305. 

Sat-ur-na'11-a, 261. 

Saul, 66. 

Sav'oy, duchy of, 615. 

Saxe (sax), marshal, 509. 

Saxons, 299, 318, 322. 

Scal'i-ger, 644. 

Scarron (skar-rong'), 567. 

Schamyl (shah' mil), C30. 

Schelling (shel'ling), 646. 

Schiller (shil'ler), 645. 

Schles'wig or Sles'wick, 606, 624. 

Schlie'mann (shle-), explorations by, 
145. 

Schools, 402, .525, 553, 565, 611. 
I Schubert (shoo'bert), 640. 
j Schumann (shoo'man), 640. 

Schwarzenberg(s/irfarte'en-6ergr),prince, 
585. 

Schwytz (shvitez), 437. 

Science, among the Chaldeans, 37; 
among the Egyptians, 59 ; among the 
Greeks, 161; among the Anglo-Saxons, 
337; in England, 375, 505, 530; in mo- 
dern Europe, 641. 

Scinde (smd), reduction of, 519. 

Scip'i-o, consul, defeated by Hanibal, 
209. 

Scipio, defeated at Thapsus, by Julius, 
Caesar, 237. 

Scipio ^-mil'i-a-nus, takes Numantia, 
219, n. 

Scipio, Lucius Asiaticus, 214. 

Scipio, Nasica, 222. 

Scipio, Publius Cornelius Africanus, 
destroys the Carthaginian power in 
Spain, 210; defeats the Carthaginians 
at Utica, 212; vanquishes Hannibal at 
Zama, 213; his death, 215. 



Indet, 



681 



Scotland, 360, 361, 502. 

Scots, 360, 361, m-Z. 

Scott, Sir Walter, 534. 

Sculpture, (irecian, 165; in Italy, 446; in 
modern Europe, 641. 

Scyth'i-ans, invade Assyria, 34; war 
against by Darius, 77; defeated by 
Alexander, VZA. 

Sebastian III. of Spain, 620. 

Se-bas'to-pol, 519, 589. 

Sedan {sa-duag'), battle of, 590. 

Sedgemoor, battle of, 497. 

Se-leu'ci-a, built by Seleucus, 134 ; taken 
by Trajan, ^74 ; by Severus, 275. 

Se-leu'ci-da3, kingdom of the, 133. 

Se-leu'cus, obtains a division of the em- 
pire of Alexander, 128 ; acquires near- 
ly the whole empire, 129; assassmation 
of, 130. 

SeUm I., 632. 

Selimll., 632. 

Sel'juks i-Jooks), 307, 330. 

Semi-Saxon, 376. 

Sem'ites, or Shem'ites, 300. 

Se-mit'ic Nations, 306. 

Sem'pach, battle of, 438. 

Sem-pro'ni-us, consul, defeated by Han- 
nibal, 209. 

Sen'e-ea, Roman philosopher, 258. 

Sen-nach'e-rib, reign of, 32. 

Sen-ti'num, battle of, 201. 

Sep'tu-a-gint, 140, «., 161. 

Se-ra'pis, temple of, 138. 

Se'res, land of the, 72. 

Serfdom, in England, 344, 373; abolition 
of, 366, 373; in France, 389; in Ger- 
many, 433. 

Ser'ra-no, general, 619. 

Ser-to'ri-us, establishes a power in 
Spain; his death, 229. 

Ser'vi-a, history of. 454 : insurrection in, 
630. 

Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us, reign of, 186. 

Se-sos'tris, reign of, 48. 

Se'ti, reign of, 48. 

Seven Sages of Greece, 96, n., 156. 

Seven United Provinces of the Nether- 
lands, revolt of the, 612. 

Seven Weeks' War. (i07. 

Seven Years' War, 510, .562, 605, 610. 

Se-ve'rus, Alexander, reign of, 276. 

Severus, Sep-tim'i-us, reign of, 275. 

Sevigne(,sa-i'ee?i'//r/), Madame de, 568. 

Seymour. Jane, 467. 

Shaillot(.s/id-//o'). 566. 

Shakespeare. Wilham, 506. 

Shal-man-e'ser I., reign of, 31. 

Shalmaneser II., 32. 

She'chem (fthe'kem), 67. 

Sheffield, 504. 

Shelley. Percy Bysshe. 533. 

She'shonk. reign of, 49. 

Shi'itps, 327. 

Ship Money, 482. 

Shi'shak. 49. 

Shrewsburv. battle of, 367. 

Shri'fu, builder of the Great Pyramids, 
58. 



Siberia, conquest of, 628. 

Sibylline Books, 259. 

Sicilian Vespers, massacre of, 385, 443. 

Si'ci-ly, colonies in, 87; becomes a Ro- 
man province, 208; modern history of, 
443. 

Sic-y-o'ni-a (sish-), 85. 

Sidney, Algernon, 496. 

Sidney, Sir Philip, 478. 

Si'don, city of, 61, 62. 

Sigismund (sif is-muiid) of Hungary, 
emperor of Germany, 429. 

Sigismmid 1. of Poland, 625. 

Sikhs (siks), war with, 519. 

Si-le'si-a, invasion of, 610. 

Silk-making, in England, 374, 

Silk-Worm, 312. 

Simon de Montfort, 384, 413. 

Sis-mon'di, 595. 

Si-mon'i-des, poems of, 156. 

Si-no'pe, city of, 87. 

Siva {se'vah), 70. 

Slavery, among the Greeks, 167, 172; 
among the Romans, 220, /(., 221, 230; 
abolished in the English colonies, 517. 

Sla-vo'ni-ans, 303, 306. 

Slavs, 299. 

Smal'cald, league of, 600. 

Smer'dis, the Magian, 76. 

Smo-lensk', battle of, 583. 

Smollett, 335. 

So. See Sabaco. 

So-bi-es'ki (-fce), John, 604, 626, 633. 

Social War, Greek, 118; Roman, 225. 

Soc'ra-tes, condemnation and death of, 
111; character of, 112, n.; account of 
by Xenophon, 157. 

Socrates, chiu-ch historian, 311. 

Sof'far, 654. 

Sof-far'i-des, 6.54. 

Sog-di-a'na. 123. 

Solferino {sol-fa-re' no), battle of, 590. 

SoFo-mon, reign of, 67. 

So'lon, his laws, 96: effect of, 97. 

Sol'y-man. sultan of Rouni, 409. 

Soljhnan the Magnificent, 632. 

Som'er-set, duke of. 468. 

Soph'o-cles, tragedies of, 157, 159. 

Sorbonne (sor-bon'), Robert de, 391. 

South'ey, Robert, 534. 

So-zo'men, 311. 

Spain, increase of the Carthaginian 
power in, 208; subjugated by the Ro- 
mans, 210: invaded by Charlemagne 
31S; conquered bv tlie Saracens, 328 
history of in the Middle Ages, .548 
maritime enterprises of, 450: dialects 
in, 4.51 : modern history of, 616. 

Spanish Independence in America, 618. 

Spanish Language and Literature. 451. 

Spanish Succession, war of. 500. .560. 

Spar'ta, ancient kingdom of. 89; institu- 
tions of, 93: wars waged by, 95; war 
with Athens, 108: saved from capture 
by Agesilaus, 115; corrupted and 
enervated, 117; taken by Antigonus, 
132. 

Spar'ta-cus, revolt under, 229. 



682 



lndei£. 



Spencer, Herbert, 537. 

Spenser, Edmund, 478. 

Spinoza (sjje-no'zah), 644. 

Spire, diet of, 599. 

Spurs, battle of, 464, 543. 

Stamp Act, 512. 

Stan'is-las, king of Poland, 562, 623, 626. 

Stanley, Lord, 372. 

Stanley, Sir William, 372. 

Star Chamber, court of, 474, 482. 

States-General of France, assemblage 
of, 387, ;388, 393, 400, 401, 548, 553, 555, 
571, 592; order of opening, 401. 

Steam Navigation, 526. 

Steele, 507. 

Stephen, king of England, 341. 

Stephenson, George, 528. 

Sterne, Laurence, 533. 

Stewart, Dugald, 535. 

Stil'i-cho i-ko), 285. 

Stockmg-Knitting, 639. 

Stoics, school of the, 158. 

Stonehenge, 323. 

Stra'bo, the geographer, 161. 

Stra-del'la, 640. 

Strasburg, taken by the French, 559. 

Stuart, Arabella, 478. 

Stuart, Mary, 472. 

Styx, river, 174. 

Sua'bi-a, 298. 

Sue-to'ni-us, Roman historian, 258. 

Sueves or Swevi, 297, 298. 

Sue'vi, settlement of in Spain, 286. 

Suez Canal, 522. 

Suger (soo-zha'). Abbe, 392. 

Sul'la, defeats Mithridates, 226; vi-arwith 
Marias, 227; massacre by, 228; perpet- 
ual dictator, 229; his death, 229. 

Sul'ly (or soo-ye'\ duke of, 554, 555, 564. 

Sunday, institution of, 282. 

Sunday-schools, 525. 

Sun'nites, 327. 

Suove-tau-ril'i-a, 261. 

Su'phis, 58. 

Supremacj^ Act of, 470. 

Surrey, earl of, 464, 495. 

Su'sa, capital of the empire of Darius, 
77; taken by Alexander, 123. 

Su-si-a'na, 134. 

Su-var'off, general, 578, 626, 629, 633. 

Sw^eden, history of, 622. 

Swe'den-borg, 644. 

Sweyn (s7vane), 335. 

Swift, Jonathan, 507. 

Swinburne, Algernon C, 536. 

Swiss Confederacy, 438. 

Swiss, insm-rection of, 427, 437. 

Switzerland, history of, 437, 614. 

Syb'a-ris, 87. 

Sylvester II., pope, 421. 

Syn-cel'lus, 312. 

Syr'a-cuse, history of , 204; independent 
of Carthage, 208; taken by the Ro- 
mans, 211. 

Syr-i'a, situation and history, 65; sub- 
dued by the Saracens, 305, 326; in- 
vaded by Napoleon, 578, 634. 

Syrian Kingdom, 133. 



Ta'ci-tus, emperor, 288. 

Tacitus, historian, 2.58. 

Tad'mor or Palmyra. 67. 

Tai'ping Rebellion, 052. 

Talavera (tah-lah-va'rah), battle of, 515. 

Tal'ley-rand, 585. 

Tam'er-lane. See Timour. 

Tancred, 409. 

Tan'ites, dynasty of, 49. 

Ta'ou-ism, 73. 

Tapestry Weaving, 639. 

Ta-ren'tum, city of, 87; war against, 201; 
taken by the Romans, 202; taken by 
the emperor of Germany, 442. 

Tarik (f ah -reek'), 328. 

Tar-pei'an Rock, 199. 

Tar-quin'i-us Piiscus. i-eign of, 186. 

Tarquinius Sviperbus, 186. 

Tar'shisfe, a Phoenician colony, 61 ; mines 
of, 64. 

Tar'sus, foundation of, 41. 

Tar'tars, incursions of, 72. 

Tas'so, poet, 644. 

Taylor, Jeremy, 507. 

Teh'rak, 50. 

Tell, William, story of, 428. 

Templars, knights, 410; suppression of 
in France, 386. 

Ten'ny-son, Alfred, 535. 

Ter'ence, comedies of, 220. 

Test Act 495 

Teutonic Order, knights of the, 609, 625. 

Teu'tons, defeated by Marius, 224, 225, 

Tewksbury, battle of, 371. 

Thack'e-rav, William M., 536. 

Tha'les of Miletus, doctrines of, 156. 

Thap'sus, battle of, 236. 

Thebes, capital of Upper Egypt, de- 
scription of, 52; most flourishing 
period of, 53. 

Thebes, in Bcjeotia, foimdation of, 91; 
war with Sparta, 115; invites the in- 
terference of Philip, 118. 

The-mis'to-cles, his course at the battle 
of Salamis, 103; rivalship with Aris- 
tides, 104 : banished by the ostracism, 
104; his death, 104. 

The-oc'ri-tus, poems of, 160. 

The-od'o-ric, king of the Ostrogoths, 301. 

The-o-do'si-us the Great, reign of, 285. 

Theodosius II., Roman emperor, 301. 

The-o-phy-lact', 312. 

Ther-mop'y-lae, battle of, 102; second 
battle of, 130, 214. 

Theseus (the's^tse), 89. 

Thes-mo-pho'ri-a, festival of, 152. 

Thes'pis, founder of Greek tragedy, 157. 

Thes-sa'li-ans, migration of, 92. 

Thes'sa-ly, 85. 

Thiers (te-ar'), president of the French 
republic, 591 ; author, 595. 

Thierry {te-er're), 595. 

Third Estate, creation of, 387; in conflict 
with the king, 401, 571, 592. 

Thirty Tyrants, in Athens, 111. 

Thirty Years' War, 602, 603, 604. 



Index. 



683 



Thomson, James, 531. 

Thorwaldsen (tor-tvald'sen), 641. 

Thoth'mes III., conquests of, 48; obe- 
lisks erected by, 57, n. 

Thothmes I«^., builder of the Sphinx, 48. 

Tliou (too), Augusta de, 55:1 

Thras-y-bu'hia, 111. 

Tlu-ee HiMiries, war of, 549. 

Thu-cyd'i-des, historian. 111, 157. 

Ti-be'ri-us, emperor, 272. 

Ti-bul'lus, Roman poet, 258. 

Ti-ci'nus, battle of, 209. 

Tig'lath-pileserl.,31. 

Tiglath-pileserII.,32. 

Ti-gra'nes, defeated by the Romans, 136, 
226. 

Ti-gran-o-cer'ta, battle of, 226. 

Til'ly, general, 602, 603. 

Til'sit, treaty of, 581. 

Ti-mo'le-on, freedom of Sj^racuse res- 
tored by, 204. 

Timour (te-tnoor'), or Tamerlane, 310, 
458, 654. 

Tir-ha'kah, reign of, 50. 

Ti'rjais, ruins of, 145. 

Tir'zah, capital of Israel, 67. 

Tis-sa-pher'nes, 110. 

Ti'tans, 149, 

Titian {tish'an), 641. 

Ti'tus, takes Jerusalem, 273; reign of, 
273. 

Titus, colonel, 491. 

Tobacco, introduction of, 477 ; an article 
of commerce, 504. 

To'ki-o, 653. 

To-lo'sa, battle of, 448. 

Tom'j^-ris, 73, n. 

Tonnage and Poundage, 482. 

Torricelli (tor-re-sel'le), 643. 

Tos'tig, 3:35. 

Tot'i-la, king of the Goths, 303. 

Toulouse {too-loose'), siege of, 384. 

Tournament, 348. 

Tours (toor), battle of, 317. 

Towns in France, chartered, 382. 

Tow'ton, battle of, 370, 

Traf-al-gar', cape, battle of, 515. 

Tra'jan, emperor, his character and con- 
quests, 274; column erected by, 275. 

Transvaal, republic, 522. 

Tran-syl-va'ni-a, 455. 

Tras-i-me'nus. Lake, battle of, 209. 

Treb'i-a, battle of, 209. 

Trent, council of, 600. 

Tri-bo'ni-an, 312. 

Tribunes, Roman, creation of, 192. 

Triple Alliance, 558. 

Triumvirate, first, 233; second, 241. 

Trojan War, 89, 90. 

Troubadours, 391, 447. 

Trouveres {troo-vare'), 391. 

Troy, 90. 

Troyes (trimh), treaty of, 368. 396. 

Truce of God, in France, 381 ; in Ger- 
many, 422. 

Tu'dor, Edmund, 461. 

Tudor, Henry, 372. 

Tudors, character of the, 474. 



Tuileries (tweel're), storming of the, 574, 
587. 

Tul'lus, Hos-til'i-us, reign of, 185. 

Tu-ra'ni-an Languages, 19. 

Turanians, 35. 

Turenne (tu-ren'), marshal, 557, 559. 

Turgot (toor-(jo'), 590. 

Turkey, trade with, 476 ; history of mod- 
ern, 631. 

Turkish Empire, history of, 457. 

Tm-kistan {toor-kis-tan'), 630, 655. 

Turks, 303, 307. 

Tuscan Architecture, 182, n. 

Tuscan Dialect, 447. 

Tuscans, 182. 

Tus'cu-lum, 189. 

Twelve Tables, laws of the, 195. 

Tyn'dale, William, 467. 

Tyn'dall, John, 537. 

Tyre, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 29; its 
government, 61; revolt of from the 
Babylonians, {}2; taken by Alexander, 
62, 122. 

Tyr-tse'us, elegies of, 155. 

U 

Ulm, battle of, 579. 

U-lys'ses, 90, 145. 

Um'bri-ans, 181,182. 

Umbro-Sa-bel'li-ans, 181. 

University College, Bristol, 525. 

University of Oxford, 334; of Paris, 390, 
402. 

Universities, in France, 390; of Heidel- 
berg, Vienna, and Prague, 429. 

Unterwalden (oon-ter-wal'den), 437. 

Ur, 28. 

U'ra-nus, 149. 

Urban II., pope, 408. 

Uri (oo're), canton of, 437. 

Uraguay (oo-roo-gua'), 6.57. 

U'ti-ca, 61 ; capital of Africa, 217. 

U'trecht, treaty of, 561. 

Uz'becks, 655. 



Va'lens, emperor, defeated by the Goths, 

284. 
Val-en-tin'i-an I., 288. 
Valentinian II., 288. 
Valentinian III., 286. 
Va-le'ri-an. emperor, persecutes the 

Christians, 280. 
Valois (val-rnnh'). branch of, 388. 
Valois-Orleans Branch, 541. 
Van Artevelde (ar-ta-velf), Philip, 395. 
Vandals, join the Goths, 284; settle in 

Spain, 286; pass into Africa, 286, 298. 
Van Dyke (dike), 505, 641. 
Vane. Sir Henry, 4S6. 
Van Tromp, 489, 490, 558. 559. 
Var'ro, consul, defeated by HannibaL 

210. 
Vasco da Gama (gah'mah), 619. 
Vauban (vo-bahng'), 559. 
Ve'das, age of, 70. 
Ve'ga, Lope de, 644. 



684 



Index. 



Veil (ve'yi), war of against Rome, 193; 
taken by Camillus, 19d. 

Ve-las'quez, (541. 

Ven'a-bles, admiral, 491. 

Ven'e-ti. attacked by the Huns, 287; 
cities of tlie, 440. 

Ven-e'ti-a, ceded to Italy, 616. 

Venetians, 181, 308. 

Venezia, 440. 

Venezuela {ven-e-zive'lah), 618, 657. 

Venice, republic of, 420; history of, 440; 
city of, 440; commerce of, 441; decline 
of, 442; manufactures of, 443; war be- 
tween France and, 542. 

Ve'nus. See Aj^hrodite. 

Verdi {vdr'de), 640. 

Verdun (vdr-duhng'), treaty of, 319. 

Vergniaud {vdrn-i/o'), 575. 

Ve-ro'na, battle of, 285. 

Versailles (ver-sales'), palace of, 566, 

Ves-pa'si-an, reign of, 272, n., 283. 

Ves'ta. See Hestia. 

Ve-su'vi-us, eruption of, 273. 

Victor E-man'u-el, 615, 616. 

Victor Hu'go, 595. 

Victoria, queen of England, 518, 519, 521. 

Vi'kings, or sea-kings, 321. 

Vil-la-fran'ca, treaty of, 590. 

Villain*, in England, 344. 

Villiers (vil'ycrz), George, duke of Buck- 
ingham. 480, 481, 482, .505. 

Vimiera {ve-me'n-rah), battle of, 515. 

Vi-na'li-a, 261. 

Vinci ivin'che), Leonardo da, 550, 641. 

Vir'gil, Roman poet, 258. 

Virginia, discovery of, 471; settlement 
of. 480. 

Vir-i-a'tus, defends Lusitania against 
the Romans. 217. 

Vish'nu, 70. 

Vis'i-goths, 284; kingdom of in Spain, 
286, 298; defeated by the Franks, 317. 

Vi-tel'Ii-us, emperor, 272, n. 

Vi-tru'vi-us, Roman architect, 446. 

Vit-to'ri-a, battle of. 515. 

Voiture ivirah-tiire'), 567. 

Vol'e-ro, Pub-lil'i-us, 193. 

Vol'ney, 594. 

Vol'sci-ans, 194. 

Vol'ta, 643. 

Vol-taire', 569, 611. 

Von Molt'ke, general, .590. 

Vul'can. See Hephoistos. 



W 



Wag'ner for vahg'ner), 640. 
Wa'gram, battle of, 582. 
Wakefield, battle of, 370. 
Wales, conquest of. 359. 
Wales, prince of, 359. 
Wallace. William, 360. 
Wal-la'chi-a, 456. 6:34. 
Wal'len-stein, Albert, 602, 603. 
Wal'lis, 506. 
Walpole, Horace, 533. 
Walpole. Sir Robert, 508. 
Walter the Penniless, 409. 



Walworth, mayor of London, 366. 
I War of the Roses, 370, 373. 

War'saw, taking of, 620. 

Warwick (war'rik), earl of, the King- 
Maker, 369, 370, 371. 

Warwick, earl of, the Younger, 461, 462, 
463. 

Washington, George, 513. 

Waterloo, battle of, 516, 586. 

Wat Tyler, insurrection of, 365, 366. 

Watt, James, 527. 

Watts, 525. 

Weaving, 638. 

Weber (iva'ber or va'ber), 640. 

Wedgewood, Josiah, 528. 

Weins'burg, taking of by Conrad, 424. 

Wellesley, Sir Artliur. See Wellington. 

Wellington, duke of, 515, 516. 

Wen'ces-las, emperor, 429. 

Wentworth, Sir Thomas, 482, 483. 

Weslej^ John, .524. 

West-plia'li-a, king of, 581. 

Westphalia, treaty of, 557, 604. 

Whewell (hu'el), William, 537. 

Whitefield {hwif field), George, 524. 

Wick'liffe, John, 367, 376. 

Wie'land, 645. 

William, archbishop of Tyre, 412. 

William, duke of Normandy, 381; con- 
quers England, 335; William I., king, 
338. 

William II. of England, 340. 

William III. " 499. 

William IV. " 517. 

William and Mary, 498. 

William III. of Holland. 613. 

William of Malmsbury, 345. 

William I. of the Netherlands, 613. 

William of Orange, Stadtholder, 495, 
612. 

William I. of Prussia, 606; emperor of 
Germany, 60S, 611. 

William II. of Sicily, 443. 

Wit-en-a-ge-mote' i-ghe-), 336. 

Wolfe, general, 510. 

Wolsey (jrool'ze), Thomas, 463, 465. 

Wolseley (wooVzlep), Sir Garnet, 522, 523. 

Women, treatment of by the early 
Greeks, 144; by the later Greeks. 171; 
costume of among the Romans, 265. 

Wonders of the World, Seven, 138, n. 

Wool, trade in, 365. 

Worcester (woos'ter), battle of, 489. 

Wordsworth, William, 534. 

World's Fair, 527, 594. 

Worms, diet, of, 599. 

Wren, Sir Christopher, 505. 

Wych'er-ly, or Wycherley, 507. 



Xan-thip'pus, assists the Carthaginians, 
207. 

Xavier (zav'e-er), St. Francis, 652. 

Xen-oc'ra-tes, philosopher, 158. 

Xen-oph'a-nes, of Elea, 156. 

Xen'o-phon. Ill, 112; engaged in the ex- 
pedition of Cj-rus, 113; writings of, 157. 



Index. 



685 



Xerx'es I., king of Prussia, 78, 101, 102. 
Ximenes (ze-me'nees), 616. 



Yed'o, city of, 653. 
Yo-ko-ha'ma, city of, 653. 
York Minster, 519. 
Yorktown, surrender of, 513. 
Young, Edward, 531. 



Zach'ii-ry, pope, 318. 
/.ei'msb, oattle of, 494, 495. 
Za-ra-thus'tra. See Zoroaster. 
Zed-e-ki'ah, last kingdom of Judah, 311; 

made captive b.y Nelnichadne2Kar, 350. 
Zend-a-ves'ta, doctrines of, 41 ; meaning 

of the term, 80. 



Ze'no, teachings of, 156; school of, 158; 
taught in the painted porch, 166. 

Zeno, Greek emperor, 302. 

Ze-no'bi-a, character and accomplish- 
ments of, 277; made captive by Aure- 
han, 277. 

Zen'ta, battle of, 604, 633. 

Zeus (2if.se), worship of, 140; temple of 
at Elis, 165. 

Zeux'is, paintings of, 166. 

Zie'la, battle of, 236. 

Zi-pan'gu, 652. 

Zis'ca, John, 430. 

Zorn'dorf, battle of, 611. 

Zo-ro-as'ter. doctrines of, 41; period in 
which he lived, 41, n.; meaning of the 
term, 79; religion taught by, 80. 

Zulus (zoo'looz), war with, 523. 

Zu'rich, 614. 

Zwingli (zwing'glee), 614. 



